Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 8 Emotion and Motivation This multimedia product and its...

Chapter 8Chapter 8

Emotion and Motivation

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What Is Emotion?What Is Emotion?

Emotion –A four-part process consisting of physiological arousal, cognitive interpretation, subjective feelings, and behavioral expression

What Do Our Emotions What Do Our Emotions Do For Us?Do For Us?

Emotions have evolved to help us respond to important situations and to convey our

intentions to others

The Evolution of EmotionsThe Evolution of Emotions

Emotions have survival value and have been shaped by natural selection

Individuals vary tremendously in emotional responsiveness

Emotions are not entirely programmed by genetics

Cultural Universals in Emotional Cultural Universals in Emotional ExpressionExpression

People everywhere can recognize at least seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise

There are, however, huge cultural differences in the context and intensity of emotional displays

Cultural Universals in Emotional Cultural Universals in Emotional ExpressionExpression

Display rules –Permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society

The Emotion WheelThe Emotion Wheel

The discovery of two distinct brain pathways for emotional

arousal has clarified the connections among the many biological structures involved in emotion and has offered

solutions to many of the long-standing issues in the psychology of emotion

Where Do Our Emotions Where Do Our Emotions Come From?Come From?

The Neuroscience of EmotionThe Neuroscience of Emotion

The biological mechanisms at work behind our emotions include:• The limbic system • The reticular formation• The cerebral cortex• The autonomic nervous system• Hormones

Psychological Theories of EmotionPsychological Theories of Emotion

James-Lange theory–An emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that, in turn, produces an emotion

Cannon-Bard theory – An emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time• One is not the cause of the other• Both the result of a cognitive appraisal of

the situation

Two-factor theory of emotion – Emotion results from the cognitive appraisal of both (1) physical arousal and (2) emotion provoking stimulus

EmotionfearCognitive interpretation

“I feel afraid!”

Physiological arousaltremblingincreased heart rate

James-James-Lange Lange theorytheory

Cannon-Cannon-Bard Bard

theorytheory

Two-Two-factor factor theorytheory

Stimulussnake

Stimulus

Emotionfear

Physiological arousaltremblingincreased heart rate

Emotionfear

Cognitive appraisal theory –Theory that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event

Opponent-process theory – Theory that emotions have pairs; when one is triggered the other is suppressed

Performance

Low HighLow

Arousal Level

Arousal, Performance, and the Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U”Inverted “U”

Inverted “U” function –Describes the relationship between arousal and performance; both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal

Arousal, Performance, and the Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U”Inverted “U”

Sensation seekers –Individuals who have a biological need for higher levels of stimulation than do other people

How Much Control Do WeHow Much Control Do WeHave Over Our Emotions?Have Over Our Emotions?

Although emotional responses are not always consciously regulated, we can learn to control them

Developing Emotional IntelligenceDeveloping Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence –Ability to understand and control emotional responses

Emotional control can be achieved by learning

Detecting DeceptionDetecting Deception

People can also control their emotions to deceive

Do “lie detectors” really work?

Polygraph – Device that records the graphs of many measures of physical arousal; often called a “lie detector” really an arousal detector

Motivation takes many forms, but all involve inferred mental processes that select

and direct our behavior

Motivation: What Makes Us Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do?Act as We Do?

Motivation – All processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities

How Psychologists Use the Concept How Psychologists Use the Concept of Motivationof Motivation

Motivation• Connects observable behavior to internal

states• Accounts for variability in behavior• Explains perseverance despite adversity• Relates biology to behavior

Types of MotivationTypes of Motivation

Drive – Biologically instigated motivation

Motive – Internal mechanism that directs behavior (often used to describe motivations that are learned, rather than biologically based)

Intrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity for its own sake

Extrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence (e.g. a reward)

Achievement MotivationAchievement MotivationWhat motivates us to work?What motivates us to work?

(School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..)(School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..)

Intrinsic Motivators

Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction.

Extrinsic Motivators

Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc..)

Work great in the short run.

Conscious motivation – Having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire

Unconscious motivation – Having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire

Theories of MotivationTheories of Motivation

Instinct theory – View that certain behaviors are determined by innate factorsFixed-action patterns –

Genetically based behaviors, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus

Drive theory – View that a biological need (an imbalance that threatens survival) produces driveHomeostasis –

The body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition

Locus of control –An individual’s sense of where his or her life influences originate–internally or externally

Maslow’s Humanistic TheoryMaslow’s Humanistic Theory

Hierarchy of needs –The notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic

Management TheoryManagement TheoryManagement/Teaching styles relate closely to Management/Teaching styles relate closely to

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators.Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators.

Theory XManagers believes that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment.

Think employees are Extrinsically Motivated.

Only interested in Maslow’s lower needs.

Theory Y

Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive.

Interested in Maslow’s higher needs.

Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch MotivationMotivation

Overjustification –The process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation, as when a child receives money for playing video games

No single theory accounts for all forms of motivation,

because each motive involves its own mix of

biological, mental, behavioral, and

social/cultural influences

How Are Achievement,How Are Achievement,Hunger, and Sex Alike? Hunger, and Sex Alike?

Different?Different?

Measuring the Need for AchievementMeasuring the Need for Achievement

Projection – Process by which people attribute their own unconscious motives to other people or objects

Need for achievement (n Ach) – Mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or reach some goal

A Cross-Cultural Perspective on A Cross-Cultural Perspective on AchievementAchievement

Individualism – View that places a high value on individual achievement and distinction

Collectivism – View that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction

Hunger MotivationHunger Motivation

The multiple-systems approach to hungerSet point –

Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight

Weight control is a complex issue with no simple answers

Biological Basis of HungerBiological Basis of Hunger

Hunger does NOT come from our stomach.

It comes from our…

What part of the brain?

The Hypothalamus

HypothalamusHypothalamusLateral Hypothalamus

When stimulated it makes you hungry.

When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

When stimulated you feel full.

When lesioned you will never feel full again.

Thirst and PainThirst and Pain

Volumetric thirst –A drop in extracellular fluid levels

Osmotic thirst –A drop in intracellular fluid levels

Sexual MotivationSexual Motivation

Sex is natural.

Without sex, none of us would be here.

How do scientists (or you) find out about sex?

YOU ASK!!!!!!

The Scientific Study of SexualityThe Scientific Study of Sexuality

Kinsey interviewed 18,000 Americans concerning their sexual behavior

Masters and JohnsonSexual response cycle –

Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution occurring in both men and women

Kinsey’s StudiesKinsey’s Studies•Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in early 1950’s).

•Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female

•Scale of sexuality….0 to 6 where 0 is exclusively heterosexual and 6 homosexual and 7 is asexual.

Click on Kinsey to see the movie trailer.

Masters and Johnson StudyMasters and Johnson Study

In the 1960’s William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex.

382 females and 312 males.

After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn homosexual people straight.

Click on Masters and Johnson to see a more detailed explanation of their research.

Phases of Human Sexual Phases of Human Sexual ResponseResponse

Sexual MotivationSexual Motivation

Virtually any stimulus that becomes associated with genital touch and orgasm can become a conditioned stimulus that motivates sexual activity

Sexual scripts –Socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations

Both learning and genetics affect our sexual behaviors

We have discussed the energizing of sexual We have discussed the energizing of sexual motivation but have yet to discuss its motivation but have yet to discuss its

direction:direction:Sexual Orientation

An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender.

How is Sexual Orientation DeterminedHow is Sexual Orientation Determined

There has been NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined.

Kids raised by homosexual parents are no more likely to be homosexual that if they were raised by heterosexual parents.

Thus it is likely biologically determined.

Motives in ConflictMotives in Conflict

Approach-approach conflict –A conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options

Approach-avoidance conflict –A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made

Motives in ConflictMotives in Conflict

Avoidance-avoidance conflict –A conflict in which one must choose between two equally unattractive options

Multiple approach-avoidance conflict –A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects

How and Why Do WeHow and Why Do WeExperience Stress?Experience Stress?

The human stress response to perceived threat activates thoughts, feelings, behaviors,

and physiological arousal that normally promote

adaptation and survival

Stress and StressorsStress and Stressors

Stress –A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation

Stressor –a stressful stimulus, a condition demanding adaptation

A Model of StressA Model of Stress

Traumatic StressorsTraumatic Stressors

Traumatic stressor –a situation that threatens one’s physical safety, arousing feelings of fear, horror, or helplessness

CatastropheCatastrophe

Cohen and Ahearn identified five stages that occur in the wake of natural disasters• Psychic numbness• Automatic action• Communal effort• Letdown• Recovery

Posttraumatic StressPosttraumatic Stress

Posttraumatic stress disorder –delayed stress reaction in which an individual involuntarily re-experiences emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of past trauma

The Physical Stress ResponseThe Physical Stress Response

Acute stress – A temporary pattern of arousal caused by a stressor with a clear onset and offset

Chronic stress – A continuous state of stressful arousal persisting over time

Fight-or-flight response –A sequence of internal processes that prepares the organism for struggle or escape

Tend-and-befriend model – stress response model proposing that females are biologically predisposed to respond to stress by nurturing and protecting offspring and seeking social support

General adaptation syndrome (GAS) – A pattern of general physical responses that takes essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor

Resistance

Resistance– the body

seems to adapt to the

presence of the stressor

Alarm Reaction

Alarm reaction – the body

mobilizes it’s resources to cope with a

stressor

The General Adaptation SyndromeThe General Adaptation Syndrome

Exhaustion

Illness/death

Exhaustion– the body

depletes it’s resources

Level ofnormal resistance

Successful Resistance

Stress and the Immune SystemStress and the Immune System

Immune system – bodily organs and responses that protect the body from foreign substances and threats

Stress and the Immune SystemStress and the Immune System

Psychoneuroimmunology – Multidisciplinary field that studies the influence of mental states on the immune system

Cytokines – Hormone-like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system

Personality and StressPersonality and Stress

Type A –behavior pattern characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations

Type B –behavior pattern characterizedby a relaxed, unstressedapproach to life

Psychological Responses to StressPsychological Responses to Stress

Learned helplessness – Pattern of not responding to noxious stimuli after an organism learns that its behavior has no effect

Psychological Responses to StressPsychological Responses to Stress

Resilience – Capacity to adapt, achieve well-being, and cope with stress, in spite of serious threats to development

Motivating YourselfMotivating Yourself

Flow – An intense focus on an activity, accompanied by increased creativity and near-ecstatic feelingsInvolves intrinsic motivation

End of Chapter 8End of Chapter 8

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 8 Emotion and Motivation This multimedia product and its...

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