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Model Development
Preamble to the Model Development
1. In determining initial parameters to develop the model, the researcher focused on the lowest
three dimensions of the listed twelve as a result of the survey. They are as follows and demarcate
the scope of the model building:
a) Discussing ideas – students get together and debate and discuss ideas and potential
solutions to existing problems.
b) Taking time to think – students, when confronted with a problem, weigh all options for
potential solutions objectively and, through brainstorming and other techniques, reach the best
possible solution after taking time to think.
c) Learning alongside each other – students learn and study in a group, understand and
use each others’ strengths and abilities to complement each other. Abilities and weaknesses are
displayed and visible to all involved without fear of judgment.
2. As for gender differences, male and female students may be enrolled to act
as change agents in sharing dimensions which they have mastered better
than their friends of the opposite sex. Listed below are the four highest
dimensions of both genders:
Female Male
a) Making Decisions a) Developing cognitive side of their
work.
b) Learning from mistakes b) Reflective communication
c) Discussing Ideas c) Taking time to think
d) Truly speaking their mind d) Learning alongside each other
It is noteworthy that for females there are two dimensions of verbal exchange part of the highest
dimensions, while among males there is but one (reflective communication) and that not even
necessarily on an interpersonal level with peers.
3. Taking into account the findings in class levels, sharing of mastery will also benefit the
students of different levels as well.
Class Level 3 Class Level 4
a) Taking risks a) Making decisions
b) Solving problems b) Learning from Mistakes
c) Being innovative and creative c) Giving positive communication
d) Truly speaking their minds d) Learning alongside each other
The difference in class levels is striking in that level 3 students are both greater risk takers and
more outspoken versus the older students who are better decision makers and excel at learning
from mistakes. Proper collaboration should enable the class level 3 students to take time to think
and encourage both class level 3 and class level 4 students to discuss ideas collaboratively.
4. Dimensions in common between gender and class level
The highest dimensions in common for all female students and class level 4 students were for
making decisions and learning from mistakes. The highest dimension that male students and
class level 4 students displayed were for learning alongside each other. The only dimension
in common for level 3 students was with female students, where both groups scored high in
speaking their minds.
Foundational Theories (Komin, 1990)
1) Psychology of the Thais
At least two major parts of the Thai cultural value system must be taken into account to
properly address cultural idiosyncrasies between a Western based model and Thai target
audience:
a) Ego Orientation
Thais are highly ego-oriented and place high value on self-esteem. The following values play
an important role in ego orientation:
1. Face Saving Value– Since the top concern for Thais is ego and the protection
thereof, saving ‘face’ or the ego of persons involved in any interpersonal
interaction is the main priority.
2. Criticism Avoidance Value – Direct and strong criticism of any type needs to be
avoided to maintain the ego or face of not only superiors but also inferiors.
3. “Considerate Kreng Jai” value - Thai people’s consideration and reluctance to
impose upon another person or to take another person’ feelings into account. This
can be any other person, no matter if of higher or lower social standing.
b) Avoidance of Conflict
The above mentioned three values inextricably lead to conflict avoidance which in turn
inhibits the free discussion of ideas (as students do not want to show potential weakness
in verbal exchange), taking time to think (which instead is used as a delay function to
ascertain other individuals’ inclinations so as not to offend or counter existing tendencies
of others), and learning alongside each other (as this also may show one’s weakness). In
short, the task achievement value is inhibited by the social relationship value in Thai
society.
2. Psychodynamic Leadership (Stech, 2004)
Students attending Welfare Education Schools in Thailand are as much the result of their
life situational context as children of more common backgrounds. The life context of every child
then is the result of their family origin, maturation or individuation, dependence and
independence, and repression and the shadow self.
a) Family of Origin
Students in the welfare education school system come from any of these ten different social
backgrounds: 1.) children forced to enter the labor market, 2.) children who are sex workers, 3.)
deserted children/orphans, 4.) children in observation and protection centers, 5.) street children,
6.) children affected by HIV/AIDS, 7.) children of the minorities, 8.) physically abused children,
9.) impoverished children, and 10.) children affected by narcotic drugs.
As a result, students at the schools tend to be submissive and dependent on teachers as surrogate
parents at the school.
b) Maturation or Individuation
In Maturation or Individuation, greater independence takes place in the child, but the child or the
student, properly trained and inculcated with the right socialization by the parents or teachers,
acting as surrogate parents, carries the “parent or teacher within”- a conscience. Since proper
training generally did not take place in the earlier lives of welfare education school students, this
development of conscience has not been completed in a positive or productive manner.
Individuation takes place when the child or learner becomes more independent but is still
connected through a psychological umbilical cord, and the level of maturation is not certain, but
hoped for as the regular next step in the maturation process. Great authority in the teacher may
well produce a highly resistant or highly submissive learner, while exposure to a very uncaring
and relaxed teacher can result in a confused learner without a clear understanding of boundaries
and limitations. Since students at middle and high school age react strongly to authoritarian
figures in their lives, students either become submissive or overly resistant.
c) Dependence, counter dependence and independence are the three ways in which an
individual may react psycho-dynamically to a display of leadership. Dependent reactions
include the inability of followers to reach their own conclusions without the constant input
from the leadership figure. Counter dependent reactions include rebelliousness, rejecting
leadership directives, and independent reactions happen when a leader’s directives are
evaluated objectively by the subordinate, whenever possible. An independent response
evaluates the leadership directive objectively with certain criteria, such as ethical validity,
practicality etc.. Since these children have been deprived earlier in their lives before entering
the welfare education school system, they have the tendency to show greater independence
and can react strongly to authoritarian figures. The guideline for enhancing positive
independence is, therefore, to teach students to look at situations objectively and rationally.
d) Repression and the Shadow Self are two terms referring to depth psychology, which concerns
itself with the study of the subconscious, which makes people act and feel a certain way
below the conscious level. Repression is what happens when individuals have been trained to
not act a certain way in response to a felt emotion based on a situation potentially long ago,
so they, instead will repress their feelings but vent them in a different way, such as through
sarcasm, snide comments etc., when hurt. Children attending welfare schools come from
backgrounds that exposed most of then to traumatic experiences, and without any outlet or
emotional support, theses experiences had to be suppressed by the youngsters. To counteract
the lowest of the three self-leadership dimensions, it is advisable to teach students differences
in right versus wrong, and what is acceptable and not acceptable as prescribed in Thai
society.
The Shadow Self is what Carl Jung introduced and which is somewhat related to repression,
in that it concerns that part of a person’s personality which is consciously unacceptable and
the existence of which is therefore denied. In addition, mechanisms appropriate for
controlling derogatory concepts of repression and the shadow- self in the schools must be
selected.
3. Leadership Team Guidelines (Lambert, 2003)
Four guidelines are used in the development of the model.
First, purposes of leadership teams creating a broadening of the base of student self- leadership
in the school: Mechanisms in carrying out this process involve paying thoughtful attention to the
development of a professional learning community of teachers and all school staff. Student
learning is to be the focus, especially in knowledge sharing among students with different self-
leadership mastery skills as identified in the results of the survey.
Second, roles for leadership teams will be suggested within the model. Elements to be
inculcated are (1) designing student learning opportunities for self-leadership in the school, (2)
Establishing inquiry practices to enhance more discussion, (3) Initiatives are to be in alignment
with enhancing the three self-leadership elements, (4) Inviting leadership from other students, (5)
encouraging reflective communication, (6) mentoring progress of student self-development skills
and (6) Modeling self-leadership practice and skills.
Third, effective student self-leadership teams will be implemented through various steps.
They are: Creating readiness, clarifying accorded membership, selection of students as
participants in training, setting up an orientation and responsibilities for facilitation and
observation, creating self-leadership norms, providing essential skills and necessary training
processes with feedback loops for assessment.
4.) REACH Model (Merideth, 2004)
The training program will instill five elements of the REACH model:
Risk taking is seeking challenges and creating new processes to overcome challenges and
problems. Effectiveness in all students attempt is strongly encouraged to model best practices of
fellow students. Autonomy is to be practiced by creating initiatives, independent thought and
responsibility. Collegiality will arise from promoting community and interactive communication
skills. Finally, honor derives from demonstrating integrity, honesty, and ethics.
In the end, the model is depicted as the bird’s eye view of a pyramid square in plan with
receding terraces, each terrace being another part of the model firmly founded upon the
preceding, and eventually culminating in the pyramidal apex, the smallest innermost square
representing the intended outcome of the model. Starting as its basis from within the context of
Thai cultural values and psychology of the Thai people, ego orientation and conflict avoidance to
the second square, the use of the REACH model and TEAM guidelines. In the third square lies
the sharing of strengths and mastery from different gender and class levels. The summit of the
pyramid as illustrated in the model leads to the ultimate expected outcomes of enhancements of
the deficient self leadership dimensions, namely, the students’ ability to discuss ideas, taking
time to think and learning alongside each other.
Figure: The Self – Leadership Development Model for Mathayom Students in Welfare Schools,
Northeastern Thailand
Rationale for using games to implement the model
The following are advantages for using games as the main method of instruction to relay
information and improve upon an existing situation, The following has been adapted from Kirby,
A (1995) Games for Trainers. Hants, UK, Gower Publishing Company:
1) Anonymity- Less outgoing students have the opportunity to participate in an active way
without it being obvious to others they have made the decision to do so. This can be a
confidence booster and can encourage later participation in the discussion phase. In
effect, participants model active involvement for themselves, The optional element,
however, is important in allowing people the option of not participating if they so wish.
2) Developmental – For any giving learning objective there are any number of games that
differ in their complexity and in the demands that they make on the group. Selection of
the most suitable game addressing the needs and developing the abilities is of importance,
and can be done upon closer study of the game. The use of training games therefore
remains developmental for both participants and trainers.
3) Experiential – The source of training is what the students do rather than what they are
told by the trainer. Above all, games are action-based learning, with all the advantages of
that style of learning. In particular, this can improve the memorability of the learning
points.
4) Experimentation – Rather than talking about different ways of doing things, games offer
an opportunity for students to practice skills in a relatively safe environment, and to try
out different options without risking the full consequences of doing so in the real world.
Sometimes this function games have of life skills simulation can even be openly
discussed with the group.
5) Flexibility – games offer the trainer an opportunity to vary the conditions of the activity
in accordance with the needs of the group of students, something that often be difficult
with more formal training methods. Length of game, difficulty level, rules and all other
aspects can be changed at any time, thereby ensuring a reaching of the objective.
6) Full participation – The involvement of all group members becomes the norm in games.
In many other trainer-centered activities the trainer interacts with one student at a time,
and this tends to be the most dominant fraction of the students, whether in terms of co-
operation or resistance. Games set up a requirement for (full and often equal)
participation by each student. If each person has been seen to do something, then the less
vocal or socially skilled students will be more encouraged to feed back both in the later
stages of a game, and in discussions and other verbal activities further in the course.
7) Group responsibility – A game gives a group the opportunity to take decisions for itself,
and reduces dependency upon the trainer as the source of responsibility. The facilitative
role of the trainer remains vital, but the group will have to establish its own principles
and ways of abiding by them. In some cases, such as team building, this can be a major
objective of the course. In others it breaks down preconceptions of what learning and
training are while also achieving other course objectives.
8) The learning cycle – Kolb (1984) and Honey and Mumford (1986) have independently
developed models of learning as a cycle of four stages: Action, reflection, theorizing and
planning for future occurrences of the same situation. The process of a game goes
through all these four stages. Some trainers contend that training games appeal only to
Activists – those people who have a high need for the first of these four stages. A well
designed and executed training game however will cater to the needs for all: the activist
(who needs to be involved in an activity to learn), the Reflector (who needs to think about
the experience afterwards), the Theorist (who needs to be able to work the details of any
underlying principles), and the Pragmatist (whose main concern is how to apply what
been learned).
9) Memorability – games tend to be memorable because each game is unique in what it feels
like to play. This acts as an anchor that can help students to recall what was learned
although there is a risk that students will recall the game but not the objective, so proper
debriefing is necessary.
10) Motivation – The “fun” element of games ensures that participants are motivated to take
a full part.
11) Multiple relevance – Although the trainer will have a reason for introducing a particular
game, it may well be that participants get something else out of it. The open nature of
games and their correct processing ensures that what people actually gain from the game
is fully expressed even if it is not what the trainer intended them to learn.
12) Payoff for all participants – Although there may be winners in the more competitive
games, there is a payoff for all participants in term of learning experience. It is also
possible to organize the activity in such a way that there is not stigma for the losers.
13) Peer learning – Arising from this is the fact that most of the learning for a student will
come from his or her peers. This is a useful point to be able to make in the classroom
because it promotes networking, interdependence among all students and a tendency not
to see the trainer as the source of right answers. Such a modeling effect can be very
significant, and in the long term can enable students to considerably broaden their
understanding of what a learning event can be.
14) Physicality – Most games operate by making a problem or a skill into a physical reality.
Such a process can be a very powerful way of putting people in touch with their own
feelings and reactions. By locating a problem or skill in their own physical space,
students are encouraged to become involved with it rather than treating it at an abstract
intellectual level. This is a key to self -awareness.
15) Process issues – Students are more likely to be their real selves in games than in many
other sorts of training activity where they will conform to what they think of as the
participant’s role. They therefore demonstrate the way in which they react and interact in
real life situations, which can itself be the subject of discussion (process intervention) at a
later stage in the activity. This is particularly important in team-building work and any
training where feelings are examined.
16) Rapidity of Learning – Compared to any unmanipulated experience, the time frame of a
game is very compressed, and the effect of this is to accelerate learning. This is an
advantage of simulation learning methods, of which games can be seen as a special case.
17) Realism – Even when it is not a simulation, a training game functionally represents some
aspects of real life, thus making for ecological validity-it examines the issues and skills of
everyday experience in the language that the particular experience needs. A degree of
reality is experienced that might not be possible with many other teaching methods. The
feelings evoked and many of the responses generated will be very similar to those in the
situation for which the training exercise is designed to prepare students. By stressing
these parallels between training and everyday situations, games may help promote the
principles of continuous learning with associated benefits for the student and the school.
18) Risk taking – Through contracting, the effects of loss of face are minimized, and risks
can be taken which might seem too formidable in an ordinary environment. The
atmosphere can remain supportive throughout.
19) Skill Development – Many games require a degree of organizational skill which may not
actually be the main objective. The development of those skills, however, is an
achievement that many participants will recognize.
Games and Activities
1) Students discussing Ideas
Teaching for Understanding Map
Strategies of
Effective
Trainingfor-self-
leadership
Knowledge Skill Assessment
Action Aspiration Action Aspiration Action Aspiration
Iknow...
I would like to share
SkillsI
share...
Skills Iwouldlike tohave...
What
do...
What
I want
to do...
1.Scaffoldingthatencouragesstudent ideadiscussion2. Learningtasks thatreflectauthenticactivities3.Discussionsthat representself-leadership asconstructed4.Progressivetransferenceof theresponsibilityfor learningto thestudents
Adapted from E. M.Merideth, (2000) Leadership Strategies for Teachers
2) Students taking time to think
Pfeiffer, W. (Ed.)(1989). The encyclopaedia of group activities: 150 practical designs for
successful facilitating. San Diego: University Associates
Identifying Group purposes
Goal: To demonstrate how different group purposes affect group process.
Group Size: Four subgroups (A, B, C, and D) of five to seven participants each.
Time Required: One hour and fifteen minutes.
Materials: 1. A set of task sheets for each subgroup
2. A newsprint flip chart and a felt-tipped marker for each subgroup
Physical Setting: A room large enough so that the subgroups can work without
disturbing one another.
Process: 1. The students are assembled into four subgroups of five to seven
members each. These subgroups are designated A, B, C, and D.
2. Each subgroup is given a different set of instructions according to its
letter (A, B, C, D) designation, a newsprint flip chart, and a felt-tipped
marker.
3 The facilitator stipulates that each subgroup is to spend twenty minutes
completing its task and recording its list of steps on newsprint.
4. The facilitator explains the four basic purposes of groups (social,
study/educational, problem solving, and therapeutic).
5. The facilitator leads a discussion of the contents of each posted list, explaining
how each is different according to the purpose of the subgroup’s task:
6. Task Sheet A presents a social task, Task Sheet B presents a study/educational
task; Task Sheet C presents a problem-solving task; Task Sheet D presents a
therapeutic task.
7. The facilitator leads a discussion based on the following questions:
Which steps were similar? Which steps were different?
Which purposes seemed clearer and easier to fulfill than others?
What difficulties did you experience in attending to the steps rather than
the content? What were your reactions to these difficulties?
What is the primary purpose of this group?
What are the purposes of other groups that you belong to?
How can understanding a group’s purpose help you in improving that
group’s process (the way in which it operates)?
Task sheets
Task Sheet A
Your group is in charge of planning the next school party for your school. What steps will you
follow in deciding what to do?
Task Sheet B
Your group is to analyze and evaluate the latest great Thai movie everybody has seen. What
steps will you follow in completing this task?
Task Sheet C
Your group is to find an answer to the school’s problem with not having enough (insert idea
here). What steps will you follow in completing this task?
Task Sheet DYour group is attempting to comfort a member who has just loved one. What steps will you
follow in achieving your goal?
3) Students learning alongside each other
Am/Seem
Summary: Exploration of how group members see themselves and are seen
by others.
Objectives: Self-Disclosure
Team-Building
Assertiveness
Materials: Prepared cards (see below)
One card for each group member with his or her name on it.
Pens.
Pins.
Timing: 30 minutes.
Procedure 1. Pin up the name cards round the room at an equal
distance from each other.
2. Give each student a set of the prepared cards and
explain that each person has the same ones. You may
wish to eliminate some items or add others, depending
on the level of trust established within the group.
3. Invite students to pin the cards under the name of the
person they consider most appropriate. It might help
the group to start with their own name and ask the
students to move clockwise at the same time so that
nobody knows who has given what card to whom.
4. Invite the students to circulate and look at their own and
others’ lists.
5. Discuss the extent to which people’s perceptions of
themselves differed from those of others. Note how this
can even apply to apparently “objective” categories like
height.
Commentary: On a team-building course it will not be appropriate to include
the trainer. In other contexts it might.
Variations: 1. Give different students different but overlapping sets of cards
2. Provide some blank cards for people to put their own
categories.
3. In the discussion, ask what other categories people would
like to have.
4. Use blank cards only.
Sample cardsPerson who makes me laugh the most.Kindest person.Most outgoing person.Most hard working person.Most perceptive person.Untidiest person.
Most reliable person. Friendliest person. Silliest person.Most unreliable person.Most scatterbrained person.Most flexible person. Most trustworthy person.Most serious person. Most prejudiced person.Most critical person.
Person I would most share my feelings with.Most talkative person.Most spiritual person.Most untrustworthy person.Most artistic person.Person who most often irritates me.Youngest person. Cleverest person. Most logical person.Most accepting person.Least prejudiced person.Wisest person.Most passive person.Person I would most like to work with.Most cynical person. Oldest person. Greediest person.Person I would most like to go on holiday with.Most generous person.Smartest person.
Person who made the least impression on me.Most fashionable person.Person I would most like to be my boss.
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