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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
Data: - Any alphabetic, numeric and symbol may be called data.
File: - Collection of data is called file.
Dir: - Collection of files is called directory.
Information: - Processed form of data is called information.
Command: - Set of instruction is called command.
Program: - Group of command is called program.
Software: - It means a set of programs which supply instructions to a computer.
Hardware: - Physical parts or components of computer system are called hardware.
Key Board: - Key Board is an input device of the computer. Program and data are
entered by the Key Board. A key board is like a type writer.
Mouse: - Mouse is a hand operated input device used to move the pointer of
cursor on the screen or to select options.Scanner: - Scanner is an input device. It is just like photocopy machine. It scans
to image or text and copy the scanned image or text in the computer.
Monitor: - Monitor is an important out put device of the computer. It is also called
VDU. It is used to display data information on the screen.
Printer: - A printer is an output device which gives the result in printed form.
Speaker: - Speaker is an output device. It is just like the mouth of the computer. It
gives the result in the form of sound when we can hear.
Digital Cameras: - Digital Cameras takes pictures, which get stored in digital format in amemory device as floppy disk.
Microphone: - Today microphone is an integral part of most computer systems. Itconverts spoken words in digital format.
Computer: - It is an electronic device that accepts the data, process the data and
give the result in the required form.
Analog Computer: - The analog computer accepts processes and generates continuous data.
Digital Computer: - The digital computer accepts processes and generates discrete data.
Hybrid computer: - Hybrid computer is complex of both computers.
CPU: - All the actions performed by the computer system are initiated,
performed and controlled by the CPU. It is the brain of the computer.
Operating System: - An operating system is a set of programs used to manage theoperations of the computer system.
Compilers: - Compilers translates a source program that is written in a high level
language in to machine language called object program.
Interpreters: - It translates each source program statement in to a sequence of
machine instructions and then executes these machine instructions
before translating the next source language statement.
Assembler: - An assembler is a program used to convert the program written in
assembly language in to machine language.
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DEFINITION OF COMPUTER
Computer is an electronic device that accept the data, process the data and gives the result inthe required form.Computer is an electronic device which can receive inputs (data) as raw material and
process it according to the program instruction to produce the output in a useful form.The word Computer comes from the word compute which means to calculate. So acomputer is normally considered to be a calculating device that can perform arithmetic andlogical operation at an enormous speed but accurately.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
Speed: - Computer is a very fast device that can process of instructions within seconds forwhich human being may take several days or month. Its speed is measured in terms ofMilliseconds (1/103 of a second), Microseconds (1/106 of a second), Nanoseconds (1/109 of a
second) and Picoseconds (1/1012 of a second).Accuracy: - Computer maintains high degree of accuracy, errors can occur in computerizedsystem also but most of them occur due to human mistakes.Storage: - Computer can store very large amount of information in the secondary storagedevices. This information stays with the computer for further use.Consistency: - A computer can work for hours without lack of concentration, tiredness oremotional feelings.Reliability:-Computers are highly reliable, very accurate and do not make mistakes inarithmetic calculations.Versatility: - Computer can perform various types of jobs at the same time.Diligence: -Computer is a very constant, earnest and Carefulness.
Computer Vs Human Being
Computer
ElementComputer Human Being
Input Input to the system in machine-readable form.
Input to the system is through ears,eyes, mouth or nose.
Mainstorage
Hold input data and instructiontemporarily before it is processed.
Data and instructions are stored inbrain and can be recalled wheneverneeded.
Secondarystorage
It is as extension to main storageand the contents storage in itare retained permanently.
Use pocket-diaries, notebooks etc.to store contents for permanentuse.
Arithmetic& LogicalUnit
It performs arithmetic andlogical calculations and makescomparisons.
Brain performs comparisons andcalculations in order to makelogical judgments.
ControlUnit
It coordinates and controls theoperations of a computersystem.
Brain controls mental actions onthe basis of calculations andcomparisons.
Output Output the results via VDU,
printer, plotter etc.
Output is either in writing or a
speech using mouth.
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HISTORY OF COMPUTER
ABACUS:-
First of all Chinese introduced the Abacus, It is a manual calculating device and is still used
as a calculator in chine.
PASCALS CALCULATOR:-Blas Pascal, a French Mathematician invented an adding machine around 1641. It wascapable of performing addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
BABBAGES Difference and Analytical Engine:-Charles Babbage (1792-1871), a 19th century professor at Cambridge University. He isknown as the father of the modern digital computer.The difference engine made by him in 1822 used the idea of constant difference.Babbage worked on the difference Engine and designed a larger and improved calculating
machine in 1834 known as the analytical engine.
The Mark I Computer:-In 1944 Harvard University Professor, Howard G. Aiken, in collaboration with IBM(International Business Machine) built the Harvard Mark I Computer.It was capable of performing arithmetic and logical operations.The machine was extremely reliable but very bulky being 50 feet long and 8 feet wide.
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
First Generation Computer (1946-1959)The main components in use were the vacuum tubes (likes those in the old radios, whichwarmed up after a minute or show, and glowed red).The vacuum tubes were also called asvalves. The first computer used 18000 vacuum tubes weighted 30 tons and occupied on area(9 meter X 15 meter) of a big hall. Vacuum tubes took ages to warm up and consumedmassive amounts of electricity.Some of the computers of this generation are ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator andCalculator), UNIVAC-1 (Universal Automatic Computer) and IBM 650.Main Features:
Vacuum Tubes Technology.
Speed in Milliseconds.
Machine and assembly language were used for programming.
Punched card for input.
Magnetic tape and magnetic drum for external storage.
It is used for scientific computation, pay roll processing and business applications.Drawbacks:
Very large size.
Consumed lot of power.
Poor reliability.
Second Generation Computer (1959-1965)
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The real breakthrough in computers started with the discovery of the transistors. Transistor isa tiny semi-conductor device; the size is about 1/50th of a vacuum tube, which can performthe same function as that of a large vacuum tube in computers.Some of the computers of this generation are IBM 1620, and IBM 1401.Main Features:
Transistor based Technology. Speed in Microseconds.
High-level language FORTRAN and COBOL were used for programming.
Magnetic disks were used for external storage.
Wider commercial used.
Third Generation Computer (1965-1971)As the next step functions of a number of transistors were put together on a single chip ofsilicon. These chips are called integrated circuit (IC) chips. A small chip, the size of afingernail could have the equivalent of 200 to 2000 transistors.
Some of the computers of this generation are IBM 360, IBM 370.Main Features:
Integrated Circuit based Technology.
Speed in nanoseconds.
High-level language Pascal was used for programming.
Smaller, faster and more reliable than second generation computers.
Low power consumption, low heat generation and more reliable due to the use of ICs.
Fourth Generation Computer (1971-1980)
From 1970 onwards web are in the era of fourth generation computers, in which the
electronic component was further miniaturized through Large Scale Integration (LSI) ofcircuits on the silicon chip.Now the advancement of chip technology has come to be known as Very Large ScaleIntegration (VLSI), where millions transistors are packed in a single chip. The size of thechip is shrinking and computer is reducing.What used to be a room size computer at one time is now available as Desktop computer orLaptop computer with much more computational power. Along with the reduction in sizethere is significant reduction is price too.Main Features:
Large scale integration Technology.
Speed in nanoseconds.
Developed for microprocessor based technology. Very small in size and very reliable.
Negligible heat generation.
Fifth Generation Computer
From 1982 research is going on a fifth generation computer that will have the thinking powerjust like that of the human brain. Those computers, which are based on Artificial Intelligence(AI), are designed to be Thinking computers capable of storing large amount of data to beretrieved as and when required to solve a problem.Possibilities of these computers:
Ability to communicate with spoken words. Capability of human sense organs of speech sight and sound.
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Ability to find solution of problems using database and information already stored incomputer memory.
Speed is expected to be measured in picoseconds.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERSANALOG COMPUTER
The analog computer accepts processes and generates continuous data. It is a specific type ofcomputer that handles or process information which is of a physical nature such as voltage,temperature, pressure etc., so analog computer used in laboratory only.
DIGITAL COMPUTER
The digital computer accepts processes and generates discrete (discontinuous) data. It processinformation which essentiality in a binary form. Digital computers fall in to range calledMicro Computer, Mini Computer, Mainframes, Workstation and Super computers.
HYBRID COMPUTER
Hybrid computer is basically made from specific characteristic of analog and digitalcomputer i.e. hybrid computer is complex of both computers.
CLASSIFICATION OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS
Computer may be classified in usage wise and size wise.
1. Usage wise classificationSpecial Purpose computer: - These computers can be designed for a specific class of
applications. Their instruction set is permanently stored in computer chips. It lacks versatilitybut performs the assigned task quickly and efficiently.General purpose Computer: -These computers can be used for a large variety ofapplications and have versatility in use.
2. Size wise classificationSize wise digital computers may be classified in to the following categories.
Micro Computer (Personal Computer)
Mini Computer
Main-frame Computer
Workstation
Super Computer
Micro Computer (Personal Computer): -Personal computers are designed for personal use of individuals and meant for small businessunits and office automation systems.It is small in size have a wide range of applications and low cost.Main Features:
Small in size.
Have a wide range of applications.
Low cost.
8 to 32 bits word length.These computers are mostly used for a variety of application like:
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Computer literacy.
Database Management.
Desk Top Publications.
Computer Aided Design.
Multimedia and advertising applications.These Computers are divided in the three categories on the basis of physical structure:
Desk Top PCs
Lap Top PCs
Note Book PCsExamples are:
Pentium Processor.
Duel Core Processor.
Mini Computers: -Mini Computers have multiple processing units in a single CPU out of witch each processing
unit can do a separate kind of work. Its processing needs multiple users. It is an improvedversion of micro Computer.Main Features:
Time sharing system.
32 bits or more word length.
Faster and more powerful than microcomputers.
Used in colleges, universities, research organizations and industries for multiple userand interactive applications.
Examples are:
VAX
CDC 6600
Mainframe Computers: -These are huge machine with high capacity of processing using parallel processingcapabilities. The data transfer rate is 8 Million byte/second. It can be used in CentralizedTrain Reservation System, Airline Reservation System etc.Main Features:
Faster and more powerful than minicomputers.
32 bits or more word length.
Can support more than 100 users in timesharing mode.
Used in universities, bank and large industries.Examples are:
IBM 3090
VAX 8842
Workstations: -
Workstations are desktop machine which have more powerful processors speeds of about10 times of PCs. Example of workstations are:
Silicon Graphics Workstation of SUN Systems.
Super Computers: -
Super computers are used for solving multivariable mathematical problems witch requirerepetitive floating point arithmetic operations on a large array of numbers, known as vector
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super computer. These computers are mostly used in the field of atomic and nuclear physicsetc.Some famous super computers are:
CRAY-1
CRAY-11
PARAM 5000 PARAM 10000
INPUT DEVICES AND OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUT DEVICES:- KEY BOARD
MOUSE
SCANNER
DIGITAL CAMERA
MICROPHONEKEY BOARD:-Key Board is one of the most important input devices of the computer. Program and data areentered by the Key Board. A key board is like a type writer. It contains about 100-125 keys.Keys of a key board can be classified into five categories:
Alphabets Keys - Used to enter alphabets.
Numeric Keys Used to enter numbers.
Special keys Perform specific function.
Function Keys Used to perform a set of operations. These are F1 to F12.
Arrow keys used to move cursor in four directions Right, Left, Up and Down.
Some Other Keys Describes BrieflyCombination Keys: - The keys, which are always use with other keys are called combination
keys. There are 3 combination keys in our keyboard. Alt, Ctrl, and Shift.Caps Lock: - If the caps lock is on capital letter will be written and if the caps lock is off
small letter will be written.Enter Key: - This key mainly used to apply any command.Delete Key: - This is used to remove or delete the letter on which lies after the cursor.Backspace: - This is used to remove or delete the letter, which lies before the cursor.Esc: - This key is used to escape from any mistake or cancel the command which we dont
want to apply.
Space Bar: - This key is used to give the space between two words or letters during writingthe text.
Tab: - This key is also used to give space between 2 words or letters but when we want togive more space then we use this key. This key left the space of 5 letters.
Cursor Keys: - Move to cursor left, right, up and down.
MOUSE:-Mouse is a hand operated input device used to move the pointer of cursor on the screen or toselect options.Mouse actions:
I. ClickingII. Double Clicking
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III. Dragging
Types of Mouse:
Mechanical MouseOptical mouse
SCANNER:-Scanner is an input device. It is just like photocopy machine. It scans to image or text andcopy the scanned image or text in the computer.Types of Scanners:
Flat Bad ScannerHand Held Scanner
Joysticks: -Children can play with computers in a simple way by the use of Joystick, while playing videogames.
Digital Cameras: -
Digital Cameras takes pictures, which get stored in digital format in a memory device asfloppy disk.
Microphone: -Today microphone is an integral part of most computer systems. It converts spoken words indigital format.
OUTPUT DEVICES:- MONITOR
PRINTER
SPEAKERS
MONITORMonitor is an important out put device of the computer. It is also called VDU (Visual DisplayUnit) a monitor is a T.V. like device used to display data information on the screen.
Classification of monitors:Digital Monitor:-A digital monitor accepts digitals signals. The term digital therefore refer only to the type ofinput received from video adapter. Digital monitors are fast and produce clear images.
Analog Monitor:
This is the traditional type of color display screen that has been used years in TVs. In reality,all monitors based on CRT technology (except flat panel display) are analog. Some monitorsare called digital monitor because they accept digital signals from the video adapter.
PRINTERA printer is also an output device which gives the result in printed form.Types of Printers:
1. DOT METRIX PRINTER
Cheapest, widely used
Speed of the printer is slow and quality of printing is not good.2. INK-JET PRINTER
It produces qualitative printing. They are expensive.
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3. LASER PRINTER
It produce high quality printing
It is very expensive.
SPEAKERSSpeaker is an output device. It is just like the mouth of the computer. It gives the result in theform of sound when we can hear.
C.P.U. (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)
The Central processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer system. All the actionsperformed by the computer system are initiated, performed and controlled by the CPU. TheCPU works with the binary signals only. Every instruction that is executed first gets stored inthe memory unit, and then it gets processed by the CPU.
Input Unit: - It accepts the data from outside using keyboard, mouse, CDs or other sources.
It converts the data in to binary electronic signals which can be understood by theCPU.
It supplies the converted instructions or data to the computer for further processing.
Input data may be graphical, audio, visual, mechanical etc.
Some of the input units are Keyboard, Mouse, Magnetic Tapes and Disks etc.
Memory Unit: -
Memory is used to store binary codes of instructions you want the CPU to execute.
Each and every instruction to be executed by the CPU is first brought in the mainmemory.
It cannot be executed while it is stored on the secondary storage devices like disk,tape etc.
The memory stores all the data currently being processed as well as the program thatcontrols the processing.
A memory can be considered to be consisting of four groups of memories.I. Internal Processor Memories
II. Primary MemoryIII. Secondary MemoryIV. Cache memory
Control Unit: -
It is the most critical part of the CPU so it is called the brain of the computer.
It controls activities of the other units such as input, output units and ALU etc.
It obtains instructions from the memory, interrupts them decide the action to be takenand directs other units to execute them.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit: -
The arithmetic unit performs a number of calculations and computations.
The logic unit is used to apply logic; i. e. used for comparisons, for certain types of
test and takes decisions. All such types of logical operations are done in this unit.
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Output Unit: -
Output unit functions are the opposite of the input unit.
It is an interface for communication between machine and human.
The output that comes from the CPU is in the form of binary signals which getconverted in to human understandable form, i.e. graphic, audio, and visual, language
form, etc. Some of the popular output devices are Visual Display Unit (VDU), Printer, Magnetic
Disks, and Magnetic Tapes etc.
MEMORY
Memory is an essential component of every computer. It is used for storing programs as wellas data for the purpose of data processing.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMORYLocation:- What is the location of the memory? It may be either internal or external.
Internal memory includes main memory, CPUs registers etc.
External memory includes peripheral storage devices like disk, tape etc.Capacity:-
How much data memory can store refers to its capacity. It is measured as follows.1 Bit=the smallest unit of information understand by the computer. It is represented ad either8 Bit = 1Byte (one character (space) i.e. a, 6 etc.1024 Bytes =1 Kilo Bytes (Half page of text)1024 Kilo Bytes =1 Mega Byte (five hundred pages of text)
1024 Mega Bytes =1 Giga Byte1024 Giga Bytes =1 Tera Byte1024 Tera Bytes =1 Peta Byte1024 Peta Bytes =1 Exa Byte1024 Exa Bytes =1 Zeta Byte1024 Zeta Byte =1 Yeta Byte
Access Method:-
Sequential Access: - in this method information in the file is processed in order, onerecord after the other.
Direct or Random Access: -Random access file organization provides, accessing therecords directly.
Indexed Sequential file access: - This method combines the advantages of sequentialand direct file access.
Performance:-
Access Time : -It is the time taken read or write from or in to a desired location on thedisk.
Memory Cycle Time : -It consists of the access time plus any additional time requiredbefore starting an access.
TYPES OF MEMORY
At present three types of memory are commonly used in modern computers.
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1. CPU registers.
2. Primary Memory or Main Memory
3. Secondary Memory or Static Memory
CPU registers: -The CPU registers are a part of the CPU. Therefore its speed is as fast that of processor itself.
Primary Memory: - It is the main or principal internal memory.
CPU communicates directly with the main memory.
It is used for storing program as well as data currently needed by the CPU.
It is very large memory as than CPU registers but smaller than the secondary memory.
The speed of the main memory must match the fast speed of the CPU sosemiconductor (Chip) technology is used in the main memory.
There are two types of primary memoryMagnetic Core Memory: -
It was introduced in 1955.It consisted of tiny rings or core of magnetized material.A ring magnetized clockwise-represented 0 bit and in counter clockwise direction
represents 1 bit.Each core store 1 binary bit and 7 or 8 cores.
Semi Conductor Memory: -
It was introduced in 1971 by IBM.
It is faster and cheaper than magnetized core memory.
These memories use electronic circuit of silicon chip.
The electronic circuit is called a flip-flop. Circuit can store either 1 or 0.
It is volatile as it losses its contents as soon as the power is cut off. It can store million of bytes on a single chip.
This memory is of two types.
1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
The RAM is volatile in nature because it can store information as long as the power supply ison if power supply is switched off, it may lose its contents.It has two types Dynamic and Static RAM.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory)
Information contained on ROM can be read but cannot be changed. The information is storedpermanently during manufacture. The data cannot be erased when computer is switched off.
Types of ROM PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
Secondary Memory: - The Secondary memory used for storage of programs, data and other information.
The secondary storage it stores the information permanently.
Magnetic memories like hard disk and floppy disk are used as secondary memories.
The secondary storage devices are: -FLOPPY DISK DRIVE
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A floppy disk is used to store the data and transfer data from one computer to another.The square-shaped floppy disks are two typesMicro Floppy is of 3.1/2 of 1.44 MBMacro Floppy is of 5.1/4 of 1.2 MBHARD DISK DRIVE:
In a hard disk information is stored permanently. It is completely sealed and built inside theCPU and capacity to store data in a hard disk is more than the floppy or CD-ROM.CD-ROM:
It is also used to store or transfer data. IT is circular shaped disk, which can store data morethan a floppy but less than HD
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
Hardware: -Computer hardware represents all the physical components of a computer system. It includesinput unit, central processing unit and output unit.
Input Unit: -This unit provides man to machine communication. Input of any form is converted in to
binary electronic signals which can be understood by the CPU. This process is calleddigitizing. Input data may be graphical, audio, visual, mechanical etc.Some of the input units are Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick, Light Pan, Voice Data Entry (VDE),Magnetic Tapes and Disks etc.
Central Processing Unit: -The Central processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer system. All the actions
performed by the computer system are initiated, performed and controlled by the CPU. TheCPU works with the binary signals only. Every instruction that is executed first gets stored in
the memory unit, and then it gets processed by the CPU.Output Unit: -This unit provides machine to man communication. The output that comes from the CPU is inthe form of binary signals which get converted in to human understandable form, i.e. graphic,audio, and visual, language form, etc. Some of the popular output devices are Visual DisplayUnit (VDU), Printer, Magnetic Disks, and Magnetic Tapes etc.
Software: -Software means a set of computer programs that are designed and developed to performspecific task, which supply instructions to a computer.
It is further classified into 2 categories: -System Software: -It is a collection of programs designed to operate and control the processing of computersystem. It includes operating and Language Translator.Operating System: - An operating system is a set of programs used to manage the operationsof the computer system.Language Translator: -
Compilers: - Compilers translates a source program that is written in a high levellanguage in to machine language called object program.
Interpreters: - It translates each source program statement in to a sequence ofmachine instructions and then executes these machine instructions before translating
the next source language statement.
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Assembler: - An assembler is a program used to convert the program written inassembly language in to machine language.
Application Software: -Software that is designed to handle a specific application is called application software.Example: - Package, Tally, MS-Office etc.
General Purpose Application Package
Word Processor Package
Electronic Spread Sheet PackageSpecific Purpose Application Package
Accounting Packages
Airline or Railway Reservation Package.
OPERATING SYSTEM
The operating system acts as an INTERFACE between the user and the computer. An
operating system (OS) is a set of routine programs used to manage the operations of thecomputer.
A simple example: -A Policeman who directs traffic at a busy intersection.
Functions of OS: -
To control input/output operations.
To control the movement of data in the primary storage.
To locate and load programs from secondary storage.
To save files in the secondary storage.
Types of Operating System: -1. Single User Operating System2. Multi User Operating System
Single User OS: - Single user operating system organizes a computer to be operatedby one person at a time. MS-Dos is a single user operating system.
Multi User OS: - Multi user operating system enables one computer to be share between several users. UNIX and Windows are the good example of Multi useroperating system.
SYSTEM FILESFiles with system attributes are known as system files. These files contains DOSs Core
program.These system files are:
IO.SYS
MS DOS.SYS
COMMAND.COM
IO.SYS & MS DOS.SYS
These files are needed for basic input/output task. Basically these files are hidden files of the
system and stored in the root directory. When they are loaded in the memory, these twoprograms take over the running of the system.
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COMMAND.COM
This file acts like command interpreter. DOS expects Command.com file in the root directoryof boot drive.
AUTOEXEC.BATIt Stands for Auto executable batch file. As the name suggests, it is automatically executedwhenever system start. Various setting like date, time, path, etc., can be batch programmed init.CONFIG.SYS
It is an optional file and one needs to crate it if he/she wants to redefine the workingenvironment of ones system. For example, if you want to add a new device to your PC oryour software needs to open more than default, then you have to configure your system for it.
Applications of Computers
Computers in Education: -Most educational application package and programs are used to increase our reading skill,thinking and other special skills. Computers are broadly used in following.
Problem Solving
Discovery Learning
Computer Aided Testing
Computer Aided Design & Manufacturing: -
Computers are used in the area of design and manufacturing for the following two mainreasons:
To increase productivity.
To reduce costs.
Computer in Research:-
Computer is used to help man in research, in business organization and almost every walk oflife. It makes different designs realistic and easy to analyze.
Scientific Research
Language Research
Weather Research
Computer in Military: -
Computers are extensively useful in military for computerized control. Missile Control
Communication
Planning
Computers in Marketing: -
Computers are widely used in marketing operations where they create from letter generateand analyze markets surveys, prepare invoices, produces mail order, and verify status orders.
Advertising
At-home shopping
Telemarketing
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Computer in the art: -
Computer is widely used for creating effective works in painting, music and dance.
Art
Dance
Music
Computers in Communications: -
Computer is most popular in the area of communications. Computers are very effective insending and receiving information.
E-Mail.
Air Traffic control.
On line reservation.
Video Conferencing.
Electronic Banking Service.
NUMBER SYSTEM
Number System is a way to represent the data using the permitted symbols defined in thatnumber system.There are two types of number systems: -
Types of positional number system: -1. Binary Number System: - This system has only two symbols 0 or 1 so 2 is a base of
counting system.2. Decimal Number System: - This system has 10 symbols 0 or 9 so 10 is a base of
counting system.3. Octal Number System: - This system has 8 symbols 0 or 7 so 8 is a base of countingsystem.
4. Hexadecimal Number System: - This system has 16 symbols 0 or 9 and capitalletters A, B, C, D, E, and F. the alphabets A to F represent the quantities 10 to 15 so 16is a base of counting system.
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEMThis system has only two symbols 0 or 1 so 2 is a base of counting system. The binarysymbols 0 or 1 are called Binary Digits or Bits.Example 111.11 is a binary number and101.11 =1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2
=4 + 0 +1 + +
=5.75
NEED OF BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM: -
Binary number system is needed due to the following reasons: -
Computers are made up of digital electronic circuits. These circuits are essentiallybinary in nature i.e. they have to handle 2 states on i.e. 1 and off i.e. 0.
All electronic components operate in binary form.
Floppies, hard disks, taps, CDs etc. store data in bits i.e. binary digits 0 & 1.
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Microsoft WordMicrosoft WordMicrosoft Word is a word processor used for creating text based documents such as letters,faxes, memos etc.Microsoft word is word processing software which allows you to write, edit them and printthem after formatting it according to your needs. It has all the possible options of a word
processor in the form of font style and size; indents; line spacing; margin; spelling checkingand grammar checking etc.
Basic concept of Microsoft WordApplication Window: The major blank area is the major blank area on the screen is thecalled the application window or the editing area, where the user can type and edit text.Document Window: The whole window except the editing area is called the documentwindow. It includes the title bar, menu bar, standard toolbar, formatting toolbar and othertoolbars.Title Bar: The bar on the top of the screen is the title bar that displays the information aboutthe application one is working on. The title bar also has the buttons for minimizing,maximizing and closing the application placed at the top of the right corner of the title bar.Menu Bar: The menu bar has the list of options provided by the software to makefunctioning easier and convenient to the user.Toolbars: The toolbars are nothing but easy shortcuts to various menu commands provided
by the application.Template: A template is the basic framework for creating a final document. The template
provides the basic style and contents for the document to be created.Scroll Bar: - Bar that enables the mouse to scroll the screen.Status Bar: - A bar at the button of the screen show that word is prepared to do next.
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Data can be presented graphically in the form of pie chart, bar chart, line chart etc.
Worksheets and WorkbooksWorksheet: - A worksheet in Excel is the place where you enter data values. A worksheet is
made up of rows and columns. There are a maximum of 256 columns in a worksheet. Thesecolumns are named A, B, C..Z, AA, ABIV. There are a maximum of 65536rows in a worksheet in Excel. Rows are numbered from 1 to 65,536.Workbook: - The set of worksheets is called workbook. Each excel file has workbook. Bydefault there are 3 worksheets in a workbook but we can insert more sheets and also delete.
CellsThe intersection of rows and columns is called a cell. Cells can contain text, number ormathematical formulas. Each cell has cell address.Cell Address: - The name of columns and number of row is cell the cell address of activecell.
Microsoft PowerPoint
DefinitionMicrosoft PowerPoint is an ideal program for making a presentation. It also allows
you to add chart, tables and pictures for making the presentation.PowerPoint is a complete presentation graphics package. It gives everything one needs to
profile a professional looking presentation. PowerPoint offers word processing, outlining,drawing graphing and presentation management tools- all designed to be easy to se and learn.
Advantages A presentation is easier to understand as highlights the important points.
A presentation can be built with effective use of text, graphics and charts.
A presentation can be supplemented with handouts, outlines and speaker notes.
Use of Power PointPowerPoint use to create electronic slide shows that can liven up even the most
apathetic crowd. It you dont want to give your presentation electrically, you can create vividoverhead transparences and valuable audience hangouts that will rival the most polished
presenters. With PowerPoint you can create presentations that run automatically. Automated
presentations are often used as kiosks at trade shows, and such presentations are seeingincreased use on the internet.
Power Point SlideEach PowerPoint file consists of slides that contain information you desire to present
to your audience. Each slide may have a different layout depending on information types.Basic Elements: - A slide contain text, pictures, charts, tables, etc.. there are someelements which make an effective slide. These are: -Title: - It is a descriptive heading, which identified a slide.Sub-Title: It is a brief description of data.
Footnote: A footnote indicates the source of data.Border: It is a frame for the slide.
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X-axis Title: A title that displays along the X-axis.Scale: Range of number of value that is equal to one unit.Y-axis Title: Describing value on Y-axis.Series: - A set of numerical data.Series Label: A label identifying a group of series.
Creating PresentationEvery PowerPoint presentation consists of a serious of slides: text or object displayed
on a graphics background. You create your presentation by adding text and objects to slides.You will go through a series of steps for every presentation you create in PowerPoint:
1. Create the presentation, entering and editing text, and rearranging slides.2. Apply a presentation design. Modify the design if necessary.3. Format individual slides if you wish.4. Add object to the presentation5. Apply and modify transitions, animation effects, and links for electronic presentation.6. Create audience material and speaker notes.
Presentation ViewsThe presentation in PowerPoint can be displayed in five-views. These are as follows: -
Slide view: - The current view of your presentation is the slide view. Thisview allows you to work in individual slides.
Outline view: - In this view, your presentation appears like an outline. Thisview is helpful when you are in the process of organizing your thoughts.
Slide sorter view: - Use this view to see a miniature view of each slide inpresentation. Slide sorter view provides an easy way to view the over all affect ofyour presentation.
Notes-Page view: - This view is helpful to create speaker notes. These notes
remind the speaker what to say when the slide appears.
Slide Show view: - Use the slide show view to display your presentation on screen. Itis important that before you start your presentation in this mode, position on firstslide. So that the presentation starts from the beginning.
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Microsoft AccessMicrosoft Access:Microsoft Access is database management software where the information is stored. Itincludes tables, queries, forms, reports and other components, all of which allow us tomanipulate and view the database information in a variety of ways.
Steps for Creating Database:1. Identify the information to be stored.
2. Identify and create tables to hold the information.3. Define a primary key for each table.4. Join the tables using a common field.5. Create forms, if required for data entry.6. Create queries (Optional) for quickly searching information.7. Create reports, if required.
Table: -Table is the most basic components of a database. This is a collection of information stored inrecords (rows) and fields (columns). Almost every table has a primary key for the purpose of
identifies the records in the table and helps in creating relationships. This primary key isdefined for joined the common fields among the tables.
Query:A query is the fastest way to get information from a database. You use queries to view,change, and analyze data in different ways. You can use them as the source of records forforms and reports.
Input Masks:Input mask is a series of special characters that establish the pattern for the field entries. Theysave the trouble of entering certain characters like hyphens etc. The input mask is used toensure that data is entered in the right format. For Example you use the mask AB00000, theletters AB will appear on the screen and the user must entered 5 digits.
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Validation Rule:Validating rules can be put to specify requirements for data entered in a record or a field.
Primary Key:Primary key is used to maintain the order of records. They are used to uniquely identify therecords.
HTML
The internet, a network of networks, provides a lot of services related to exchange ofinformation like World Wide Web. The World Wide Web is fast emerging as the primeresource for exchange of information across the globe. HTML has been able to make itscontribution.Hyper Text Markup Language is a method where ordinary text can be converted in tohypertext. It is a set of special codes included to control the layout and appearance of the text.Technically, HTML is not a programming language. It combines instructions within data to
tell a display program called browser, how to render the data that the document contains. HTML is the character based method for describing and expressing the content. The
content is pictures, text, sound and video clips.
It delivers the contents to multiple platforms.
It links document components or documents together to compose compounddocuments.
HISTORY OF HTML
Tim Berners-Lee developed HTML in early 1990 at CERN, the European Particle Physics
Laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. HTML is a public domain and not owned by anybody.The World Wide Web (www.w3.org) is the body, which control the HTML standards. HTMLwas developed by the Tim Berners-Lee and popularized by Mosaic Browser. HTML 2.0specifications was developed under the protection of the Internet Engineering Task Force tocodify common practice in 1994. HTML 3.0 is much richer version of HTML.HTML 4.0 extends HTML with mechanisms for style sheets, scripting, frames, embeddingobject improved support for right to left and mixed direction text, richer tables andenhancements to forms.
SIGNIFICANCE OF HTML
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HTMLs popularity is mainly due to hypertext technology the technology that enables oneto search for information non-sequentially instead of linearly. Nowadays, with the click of amouse one can send and receive e-mails, access huge amount of information and onlinesubmission of forms.Using HTML one can create page and sites that can be published on the internet. This page
contains tables, images, forms, frames, multimedia and JavaScript and brings pages to lifewith dynamic HTML.
HTML TOOLS
HTML has two basic tools: - HTML Editor: - It is the program which is used to create and save HTML
documents. E.g. Notepad.
A Web Browser: -It is the program which is used to view and test the HTMLdocuments. E.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer.
CREATING LIST
ORDERED LIST: -It is used to indicate sequential form of information. In TYPEattribute values are 1 (For Arabic numbers), A (For Uppercase Alphabets), a (For LowercaseAlphabets), I (For Uppercase Roman Numbers), I ((For Lowercase Roman Numbers).Syntax: -
Any Text
Any Text
UNORDERED LIST: -In this type of list numbers are not displayed. Instead of numberBullets are displayed. In TYPE attribute values are Disc, Circle and Square.Syntax: -ab
DEFINITION LIST: -The DL (definition list) tag allows you to DT (define the terms)and DD (define the definitions).Syntax:-
WORDDefinition of the above word
HORIZONTAL ROW TAGS: -It is used to add a Horizontal Row.
FONT TAGS: -It is used to set the font color, size (1 to 7), face.
BODY TAGS: -
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It is used to set the background color, text color and link color etc.
BGCOLOR sets the background color.
TEXT sets the text color.
LINK sets the color of Hypertext Link.
VLINK sets the color of visited link.
ALINK sets the color the activated links.: -It is used to add the Background Image
HYPERLINKS: -It is used to create link with the specific file. File NameLink NameLinked Name
ADDING IMAGE: -It is used to add an image or moving pictures in the page.
TAGS USED FOR FORMATTING TEXT
TAGS DESCRIPTION, For Bold the Text
, For Italic the Text
For Underline the Text
For Break the Line
For writing in a new paragraph
,, For Strikethrough the Text For Subscript
For Superscript
For displays the text exactly as you type script.
It is used to write address.
For display the text in paragraph style.
For specify the border color for the text.
For specify the background color for the text.
ATTRIBUTES USED IN MARQUEE TAGS
Attributes Values Description
Bgcolor Color Name For Background Color of the marquee
Direction Left, Right, Up and Down Specifies the direction of marquee scrolling.
Height Percentage or no. of pixels Specifies the vertical dimension of the marquee
Width Percentage or no. of pixels Specifies the horizontal dimension of marquee
Hspace Percentage or no. of pixels Specifies the left and right margin of marquee
Vspace Percentage or no. of pixels Specify the top and bottom margin of marquee
Loop Any positive number. Controls the number of appearance of marquee.
Scrollamount Number of pixels Specifies the shift of marquee text
Scrolldelay Number in millisecond Specifies how often the marquee text redrawsBehavior Alternate, Scroll or Slide Specifies the marquee motion type
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CREATING TABLEHtml table are made up of rows and columns. The table may contain either text or images. Itstags are as follows: -
Attributes Values Description
Table Border Any valid no. of pixels For Background Color of the marquee
Bordercolor Any Color Name For Border Color of the Table
Bgcolor Any Color Name For Background Color of the Table
Width Percentage or no. of pixels Specifies the horizontal dimension of the table
Height Percentage or no. of pixels Specifies the vertical dimension of the table
Cellspacing Any valid no. of pixels Specifies the space between the cells.
Cellpadding Any valid no. of pixels Specifies the cells height.
Rowspan Any valid no. of pixels Specify no of rows in which cell will span.Colspan Any valid no. of pixels Specify no of columns in which cell will span.
FORMS
HTML form is a section of a web document into which the user can enter information. Thisinformation passed back to a web server where it might be recovered in a database for futureuse of perhaps used to control what information is returned to the user.FORMS TAGS: -It has mainly two attributes auction and method. The syntax is: -
INPUT TAGS: -The input tag defines an input area within a form. It can accept text, radio, checkbox etc as anattributes.PASSWORDS TAGS: -Password field is exactly similar to text field, except it display ***** (asterisks) instead ofthe actual input.RADIO BUTTONS TAGS: -
Radio buttons allow the user to choose one of the several options. If one option is selectedthen other option will automatically turn off.CHECKBOX TAGS: -
Checkbox offers the user an on and off switch. It is similar to a radio button, but anynumber of checkbox may be switched on.PULL DOWN LIST TAGS: -Pull down list used instead of . It has option value under the tags.Text Label
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FILES TAGS: -It is used to upload the file on a web page.
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Ampersand & A&B
Quotation mark " A
Soft hyphen A-B
Copyright sign
Trademark
Registered trademark
Microsoft Fox Pro
1. Create (File Name): Create a table.2. List: Show the all records in the table.3. List (Filed Name): Show the particular records in all records.4. Append: Add any records in the table.5. Edit: Edit the records in the table.6. Disp Reco (No): Show the particular column records.7. Disp All: Show all the records in the table.
8. Dele Reco (No): Temporarily deletion for any record.9. Recall Reco (No): Recall the temporarily delete record.10. Pack: Permanently delete the temporarily deleted records.11. Zap: Delete the file.12. Use: Close the table.13. Use (File Name): Open the existing file.14. Dir: Show the directory.15. Set Clock On: Show the clock on the screen.16. Set Clock Off: Hide the clock from the screen.17. Set Status On: Show the status bar on the screen.18. Set Status Off: Hide the status bar from the screen.
19. ? Replicate (RAHUL, 10): Show the name number of times.20. ? Max (10,5,18,9): Show the maximum records among all.21. ? Min (10,5,18,9): Show the minimum records among all.22. ? (10+18): Sum of any two numbers.23. ? (18-10): Subtraction of any two numbers.24. ? (10*5): Multiply of any two numbers.25. ? (10/5): Division of any two numbers.26. ? Sqrt (25): Sqrtroot of any number.27. ? ABS (18+9-2*5/2): Find out the absolute value.28. ? Date (): Show the current date.29. ? Time (): Show the current time.
30. ? Month (Date ()): Show the month in numeric.31. ? Year (Date ()): Show only current year.
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32. ? Dow (Date ()): Show the day of weak.33. ? Upper (RAHUL): Show the name in upper case.34. ? Lower (RAHUL): Show the name in lower case.35. ? Proper (RAHUL): Show the name in sentence case.
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FoxPro Program1. Program for calculating the Sum,
Subtraction, multiplication, Division and
Square Root of any two numbers.
Set talk offA=0B=0C=0Clear@ 2, 4 Say Enter the Value of A Get A@ 4, 4 Say Enter the Value of B Get BReadC=A+B@ 6, 4 Say Sum of two numbers Get CC=A-B
@ 8, 4 Say Sub of two numbers Get CC=A*B@ 10, 4 Say Multiple of two numbers Get CC=A/B@ 12, 4 Say Division of two numbers Get CC=Sqrt (A+B)@ 14, 4 Say Square Root of two numbersGet C
2. Program for Simple and Compound
Interest
Set Talk offP=0R=0T=0SI=0CI=0Clear@ 2, 4 Say Enter the Value of Principal GetP@ 4, 4 Say Enter the Value of Rate ofInterest Get R@ 6, 4 Say Enter the Value of Time Get T
ReadSi= (P*R*T)/100@ 8, 4 Say Simple Interest Get SICI=P*(1+r/100) ^ t-P@ 10, 4 Say Compound Interest Get CI
3. Program for Area of Circle
Set Talk offR=0Area=0Clear
@ 2, 4 Say Enter the Value of Radius Get RRead
Area=3.14*R*R@ 4, 4 Say Area of Circle Get Area
4. Program for Area and Para of Rectangle
Set Talk offL=0W=0Area=0Para=0Clear@ 2, 4 Say Enter the Value of Length Get L@ 4, 4 Say Enter the Value of Width Get WReadArea=L*W
@ 6, 4 Say Area of Rectangle Get AreaPara=2*L+2*W@ 8, 4 Say Parameter of Rectangle Para
5. Program for Calculating Total Marks
and Average Marks
Set Talk offName=Space (20)H=0E=0S=0
P=0U=0Total=0Average=0Clear@ 2, 4 Say Enter the Name Get Name@ 4, 4 Say Enter marks obtained in HindiGet H@ 6, 4 Say Enter marks obtained in EnglishGet E@ 8, 4 Say Enter marks obtained in SanskritGet S
@ 10, 4 Say Enter marks obtained inPunjabi Get P@ 12, 4 Say Enter marks obtained in HindiGet UReadTotal=H+E+S+P+U@ 14, 4 Say Total Marks Get TotalAverage=Total/5@ 16, 4 Say Average Marks Get Average
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6. Program for Calculating Meter and
Centimeter by Kilometer
Set Talk offKM=0M=0CM=0Clear@ 2, 4 Say Enter the Length in KilometerGet KMReadM=KM*1000@ 4, 4 Say Total Meter Get MCM=M*100@ 6, 4 Say Total Centimeter Get CM
7. Program for Area of Triangle by Three
angles
Set Talk offA=0B=0C=0S=0Area=0Clear@ 2, 4 Say Enter the Side A Get A@ 4, 4 Say Enter the Side B Get B@ 6, 4 Say Enter the Side C Get C
ReadS= (A+B+C)/2@ 8, 4 Say Side S Get SArea=(S*(S-A)*(S-B)*(S-C))@ 10, 4 Say Area of Triangle Get Area
8. Program for Calculating Area of Square
Set Talk offA=0Area=0Pare=0
Clear@ 2, 4 Say Enter the Side A Get AReadArea=A*A@ 4, 4 Say Area of Square Get AreaPara=4*A@ 6, 4 Say Para of Square Get Para
9. Program for write down the table
Set Talk offM=0ClearDo while MB
Max=AElseMax=BEndifIf Max>C@ 8, 4 Say Maximum No is Get MaxElse@ 10, 4 Say Maximum No is Get CEndif
11. Program for Find out the Even Number
or Odd Number from the giver Number.
Set Talk OffA=0Clear@ 2, 4 Say Enter Any Number Get AReadIf a%2=0@ 4, 4 Say This number is Even Get AElse@ 6, 4 Say This number is Odd Get AEndif
12. Program for calculating the sum of theodd numbers.
ClearSet Talk offT=0X=0Do While (X
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C Language
What is Language?
Language is a medium of communication. There are several types of languages like:1. Low Level Language: - Low level language is used to design system software andutilities etc.
2. High Level Language: -High level language is used to design the application softwarelike Business Problems and Scientific problem.
What is C?C is a programming language developed at AT & Ts Bell Laboratories of USA in 1972. Itwas designed and written by a man named Denis Ritchie. The C Compilers combines thecapabilities of an assembly language with the feature of a high-level language and therefore itis well suited for writing both system software and business package.There are only 32 keywords and its strength lies its built-in functions.
ConstantsConstant in C refer to fixed value that do not change during the execution of a program. Thisquantity can be stored at a location in the memory of the computer.
Types of C ConstantsC constants can be divided into two major categories:
1. Primary Constantsa) Integer Constants
b) Real Constantsc) Character Constants
2. Secondary Constantsa) Arrayb) Pointerc) Structured) Union etc.
Rules for Constructing Integer Constantsa) An integer constant must have at least one digit.
b) It must not have a decimal point.c) It could be either positive or negative.d) No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.e) The allowable range for integer constants is -32768 to +32767.
Rules for Constructing Real Constantsa) An integer constant must have at least one digit.
b) It must have a decimal point.c) It could be either positive or negative.d) No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
Rules for Constructing Character Constantsa) A character constant is a single alphabet, a single digit or a single special symbol
enclosed within single inverted commas; both the inverted commas should point tothe left.
b) The maximum length of a character can be 1 character.
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VariablesIn C a quantity which may vary during program execution is called a variable. Variablenames are given to locations in the memory of computer where different constants are stored.These locations can store integer, real or character constants.
Rules for Constructing Variable Namesa) A variable name is any combination of 1 to 8 alphabets, digits or underscores. Somecompilers allow variable names whose length could be up to 40 characters, still, itwould be safer to stick to the rule of 8 characters.
b) The first character in the variable name must be an alphabet.c) No commas or blanks are allowed within a variable name.d) No special symbol other that an underscore can be used in a variable name.
C KeywordsEvery C word is classified as either a keyword or an identifier. All keywords have fixedmeanings and these meaning cannot be changed. Keywords serve basic building blocks for
program statements.There are 32 Keywords available in C.
auto double if static break else int struct
case enum long switch char extern near typedef
const float register union continue return default for
short void do goto signed while far unsigned
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/*for simple addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division*/
#include#includevoid main(){int a,b,c;clrscr();
printf("enter the value of a and b");scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);c=a+b;
printf("Total=%d",c);c=a-b;
printf("Subtraction=%d",c);c=a*b;
printf("Multiplication=%d",c);c=a/b;
printf("Division=%d",c);getch();}
/*for simple and compound interest*/
#include#include#includevoid main(){int p,r,t,si,ci;
clrscr();printf("enter the value of principle,rate ofinterest,number of years");scanf("%d%d%d",&p,&r,&t);si=(p*r*t)/100;
printf("simple interest=%d",si);ci=p*pow((100+r)/100.0,t)-p;
printf("compound interest=%d",ci);getch();}
/*programe to find out area of a triangle*/#include#includevoid main(){int b,h,area;clrscr();
printf("enter the value of breadth and height");scanf("%d%d",&b,&h);area=(b*h)/2;
printf("area of triangle is:%d",area);getch();}
/*programe to simplyfy the equation*/
#include#includevoid main(){int b,a,c,d;clrscr();
printf("enter the value of b,a,and c");scanf("%d%d%d",&b,&a,&c);d=((b*b)-4*a*c);
printf("discriminant=%d",d);getch();}
/*programe to find out largest number in
given three numbers*/
#include
#includevoid main(){int a,b,c;clrscr();
printf("enter any three numbers");scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);if(a>b&&a>c)
printf("a is large number:%d",a);elseif(b>c)
printf("b is large number:%d",b);
elseprintf("c is large number:%d",c);getch();}
/*programe to do print the four digit
number in the reverse form*/
#include#includevoid main(){int a,b,c,d,r1,r2,r3,r4;
clrscr();printf("enter the value of a four digitnumber");scanf("%d",&a);r1=a%10;
b=a/10;r2=b%10;c=b/10;r3=c%10;r4=c/10;d=r1*1000+r2*100+r3*10+r4*1;
printf("reverse form=%d",d);getch();}
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/*programe to find out the division*/
#include#includevoid main(){int a,b,c,d,e,av;clrscr();
printf("enter marks of five subjects");scanf("%d%d%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c,&d,&e);av=(a+b+c+d+e)/5;if(av>=60)
printf("first division");elseif(av>=50&&av=35&&av
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TallyTally is an Accounting Software that helps you in maintaining Accounts and Inventory ofyour office.
AccountingAccounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and
in terms of money, transactions and events, which are in part, at least, of a financial character,and interpreting the result thereof American Institute of certified public accountants.
Methods of AccountingThere are two types of Accounting Systems.
American Method or Single Entry System.
English Method or Double Entry System.
American Method or Single Entry SystemIt has further five types of accounting.
I. Assets AccountsII. Liabilities Accounts
III. Capital Accounts or Owners Equity A/cIV. Revenue or Income AccountsV. Loss or Expenses A/c
Methods of RecordingI. Debit the Increase in the Assets and Credit the Decrease in the Assets.
II. Credit the Increase in the Liabilities and Debit the Decrease in the Liabilities.III. Credit the Increase in the Capital and Debit the Decrease in the Capital.IV. Credit the Increase in the Income and Debit the Decrease in the Income.V. Debit the Increase in the Expenses and Credit the Decrease in the Expenses.
English Method or Double Entry System
Classification of Accounts1. Personal Accounts: -These accounts are those accounts which are opened by a
name of a person, firm, company, society or organization.
Rules: -Debit the Receiver and Credit the Giver.
Types of Personal Accounts: -I. Natural Personal Accounts:
a) RAHULs Accountsb) Owners Capital Accountsc) Owners Drawing Accountsd) Debtors Accountse) Creditors Accounts
II. Artificial Personal Accounts
a) Firms Accountsa) Companys Accounts
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Steps for working in the Tally1. Create Company: - In Tally this is the First task or primary task to create a company.
For this Purpose we have to select the Create Company option from menu Gateway ofTally. After selecting the option we have to fill up the details for the Company likeCompany Name, Address, Started Date, and Income Tax No etc.
2. Creates Groups: -Groups are created for same type of Ledger A/cs. In Tally There aremany groups which are used for making ledgers. So in the rare cases we have tocreate groups. These are the main groups in the tally.
I. Reserve and Surplus (Retained Earning): -You can use this group heads likeInvestment Allowance Reserve, Select Ledger and other such reserve accounts.
II. Current Assets: - This is the primary group that has all the current assetsaccounts. It has Six Sub-Groups under it.
a) Bank Accounts: -It is used to hold all accounts of banks.b) Cash in hand: -It is used to hold ledger account of cash.
c) Deposits: -It is used to hold assets like security deposits, rental deposits and allother deposits made by the company.d) Loan and Advances: -It is used to hold all advances and loans of non trading
nature given by the company.e) Stock in hand: -It is used to hold certain special accounts like raw material,
finished goods and work in progress.f) Sundry Debtors: -It is used to hold accounts of companies and individuals that
give goods on credit to the company.III. Current Liabilities: -This is a primary group and is used to hold outstanding and
statuary liabilities of the company. The group has three sub groups under itwhich are as follows.
a) Duties and taxes: -It consists all types of taxes and duties like Excise, LocalSales tax, Central Sales Tax, VAT etc.
b) Provisions: -It is used to hold other tax provisions like Income tax,depreciation in it.
c) Sundry Creditors: -It is used to hold accounts trade creditors of the company.IV. Fixed Assets: -This is used to keep accounts of all the fixed assets, patents, trade
tights etc.V. Investment: -This is used to hold ledger accounts of shares, bonus and other
securities of the company.VI. Loan Liabilities: -This is used to keep track of loan taken by the company. This
group has three sub groups which are as follows.
a) Bank OD Accounts: -It is used to hold all overdraft accounts with banks.b) Secured Loans: -It is used to hold long/medium term loans taken by the
company from financial companies and Banks etc.c) Unsecured Loans: -It is used to hold the loans taken unconditionally by the
company.VII. Suspense Accounts: -This is used by many companies to maintain a suspense
ledger which keeps track of money received or paid by the companies, whosenature of transaction is not yet known.
VIII. Miscellaneous Expenses: -The loss of the company, which has not been writtenoff but carried forward to the next year, should fall here. However, tally treats itas a negative profit and carries it to the profit and loss account.
IX. Branches/Division: -This is used to keep the names of all companies which maybe branches, divisions of the company.
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X. Sales Account: -It is used to all goods sales accounts of the companies.XI. Purchase Account: -It is used to all goods purchase accounts of the companies.
XII. Direct Income: -It is used to hold ledger accounts of non-trade income accountsthat affect gross profit.
XIII. Indirect Income: -This is used to hold ledger accounts of those expenses of the
company that determine its gross profit. For example interest received andcommission received.
XIV. Direct Expenses: -This is used to hold ledger accounts of those expenses of thecompany which determine its gross profit. Expenses like salary paid to labour,transportation, electricity bills etc.
XV. Indirect Expenses:-This is used to hold ledger account of those expenses of thecompany, which determine its net profit. Expenses like advertising, maintenanceof vehicles, administrative expenses etc.
3. Create Ledgers: -Ledgers are actual account heads to which the transactions areidentified. You Make all voucher entries in these accounts. You have to classify all
ledgers in to groups.
4. Voucher Entries: -For Making the Voucher Entries first of all we have to set thevoucher date by pressing F2 then enter the voucher date. There are various types ofvouchers in tally.
Voucher Entries are describes as follows: -
I. Contra Voucher: -This type of voucher is used for Cash to Bank, Bank to Cash andBank to Bank Entries. Press F4 to select the voucher type.
II. Payment Voucher: -This type of voucher is used for the Cash Payment Entries.Press F5 to select the voucher type.
III. Receipts Voucher: - This type of voucher is used for the Cash Receipts Entries.Press F6 to select the voucher type.
IV. Journal: - This is used for the Journal Entries like debit of credit Entries. Press F7to select the voucher type.
V. Sales Voucher: -This is used for the Goods Sales Entries. Press F8 to select thevoucher type.
VI. Purchase Voucher: -This is used for Goods Purchase Entries. Press F9 to select thevoucher type.
VII. Memo: -This is used to create Memorandum or Reverse Journal Voucher. PressF10 to select the voucher type.
5. Display Reports: -There are several types of reports are generated by the tally likeTrading and Profit and Loss Account, Balance Sheet, Inventory Reporting RatioAnalysis etc.
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TRADING ACCOUNT
Figure
forth
e
previous
year
Expenditure
Figure
forthec
urrentyear
Figure
forth
e
previous
year
Income
Figure
forthec
urrentyear
Rs Particulars Rs. Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Opening Stock:I. Raw Materials
II. Work-in-ProgressIII. Finished Goods
To Purchases
Less: Purchases ReturnsTo Manufacturing Exp.(Direct Exp.)
I. WagesII. Wages and Salaries
III. Direct chargesIV. Carriage inwardsV. Gas fuel and power
VI. Freight, Octroi,Cartage
VII. Royalty
VIII. Excise DutyIX. Custom or Import
DutyX. Factory Rent and
Lighting
By Sales:Less: Sales Returns
By Closing Stock:I. Raw Materials
II. Work-in-Progress
III. Finished Goods
Rs. To Gross Profit (If Any)transferred to P/L Account(Bal. Figures)
Rs. Rs. By Gross Loss (If Any) transferred toP/L Account (Bal. Figures)
Rs.
Rs To Gross Loss (If Any) B/D Rs. Rs. By Gross Profit (If Any) B/D Rs.
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Profit and Loss Account
Figure
forthep
revious
year
Expenditure
Figure
forthe
curre
ntyear
Figure
fortheprevious
year
Income
Figure
forthe
curre
ntyear
Rs Particulars Rs. Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Employee Remuneration:I. Salaries, Bonus etc.
II. Contribution of provident fund,
Pension fund etc.III. Staff Welfare exp.
To Selling and Distributionexp:
I. Advertising, Godown,Rent etc.
II. Commission,Brokerage anddiscount Allowed.
To Office Exp.I. Rent, Rates and Taxes
II. Salaries, Salaries andWages
III. Insurance PremiumIV. Printing, Postage &
StationeryV. Repair and lightning.
VI. Unproductive wages.VII. Audit fees and legal
charges.VIII. Telephone Exp.
IX. Trade Exp.X. Establishment Exp.
XI. General Exp.To selling and distributionExp.
I. Carriage outward.II. Commission.
III. Export duty.IV. Parking charges.V. Bad debts.
VI. Sales tax.
VII. Miscellaneous Exp.
By Gross Profit (If Any) B/DBy Rent From TenantBy Discount ReceivedBy Income From Investment
By Profit on role of investmentsBy Interest receivedBy Commission ReceivedBy Dividend Of SharesBy Apprentice PremiumBy Profit on sale of AssetsBy Miscellaneous ReceiptsBy Income From other sources
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Rs. To Net Profit (If Any)transferred to Capital Account(Bal. Figures)
Rs. Rs. By Net Loss (If Any) transferred toCapital Account (Bal. Figures)
Rs.
Balance Sheet of RN Pvt. Ltd.As on 31st march 2007
Figure
forthe
previous
year
Liabilities
Figure
forthe
currentyear
Figure
forthe
previous
year
Assets
Figure
forthe
currentyear
Rs Particulars Rs. Rs. Particulars Rs.
1. Share Capital:Authorized and Subscribedshares.
2. Reserve and Surplus:I. Capital Reserve
II. Share PremiumIII. Other Reserves
Less: Debit Balance of P/LAppropriation A/c (If Any)
IV. Surplus i.e Credit Bal.of P/L A/c (After Providing
the Proposed Dividend,Bonus or Reserves)
V. Sinking Fund3. Secured Loans:I. Debentures
II. Loan and Advances4. Unsecured Loans:I. Fixed Deposit
II. Short term Loan andAdvances
5. Current Liabilities andProvisions:
I. Acceptance (B/P)II. Sundry Creditors
III. Unclaimed DividendsIV. Interest Accrued but
not due on loansV. Provision for Taxation
VI. Proposed DividendsVII. Provision for
Insurance
VIII. Other provisionsIX. Contingent Liabilities
1. Fixed Assets:I. Goodwill
II. LandIII. BuildingIV. LeaseholdsV. Plant and Machinery
VI. Furniture and FittingsVII. Patents, Trade Mark and Copy
RightVIII. Vehicles
2. Investment:
I. Govt. or Trust SecuritiesII. Share, Debentures and bonds
III. Investment and ImmovableProperties
3. Current Assets, Loans andAdvances:
I. Interest Accrued onInvestment
II. Stores and spare partsIII. Loose ToolsIV. Stock-in-TradeV. Work in Progress
VI. Sundry DebtorsLess: Cash or Bank Balance
VII. Bills of Exchanges4. Miscellaneous ExpenditureI. Preliminary Expenses
II. Discount Allowed on theshare or debenture
III. Development Expenses notadjusted.
5. Profit And Loss AccountDebit Balance of P/L Account (If
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like Claim against companynot acknowledged or debts
Any). (This is shown only when itsdebit balance could not be written offout of other reserves)
Rs. Total Amount Rs. Rs. Total Amount Rs.
Computer Abbreviations
1. ALU Arithmetic and Logic Unit2. ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange3. BCD Binary Coded Decimal4. BIOS Basic Input Output System5. CAD Computer Aided Design
6. CAM Computer Aided Manufacturing7. CD Compact Disk 8. CD-ROM Compact Disk Read Only Memory9. CGA Color Graphic Adapter 10. COBOL Common Business Oriented Language11. CPU Central Processing Unit12. CVT Constant Voltage Transformer 13. DBMS Data Base Management System14. DOS Disk Operating System
15. DVD Digital Versatile Disk, Digital Video Disk 16. DTPS Desk Top Publishing System
17. EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory18. FAT File Animation Tool or Trunk 19. FIFO First In First Out
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20. FDD Floppy Disk Drive21. GB Giga Byte22. GIF Graphic Underhand Format23. GIGO Garbage In Garbage Out24. GUI Graphical User Interface25. HDD Hard Disk Drive26. IBM International Business Machine27. IC Integrated Circuits28. IDE Integrated Device Electronics29. IT Information Technology30. INTERNET International Network31. JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group32. KB Kilo Byte33. LAN Local Area Network 34. LIFO Last In First Out35. MAN Metropolitan Area Network 36. MG Mega Byte
37. MS-DOS Micro Soft Disk Operating System38. NTFS New Technology File System39. OCR Optical Character Reader 40. OMR Optical Mark Recognition41. OS Operating System42. PASCAL A Programming Language43. PROM Programmable Read Only Memory44. RAM Random Access Memory45. ROM Read Only Memory46. SQL Structural Query Language47. UNIX A Multi-user Time Sharing System48. VDU Visual Display Unit
49. VGA Visual Graphic Adaptor 50. WAN Wide Area Network
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