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Introduction to Communication Research
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MODULES1-13
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCH
MODULE1:RESEARCHOVERVIEWDr. Racidon P. BernarteCollege of Communication, PUP
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THECONDUCTOFINQUIRY
"inquiry" means the systematic, disciplined ordering of
experience that leads to the development of knowledge.
The word "know means knowing that something is the case (philosophers distinguish
between knowledge and belief);
knowing some person or feeling;
knowing to how do something.
The conduct of inquiry involves a planned method. We should note that
inquiry has an expected outcome.
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STAGESOFINQUIRY
Ask significant questions and then suggest
answers
Observe the object
Formulates answers Theory Building
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TYPESOFSCHOLARSHIP
Scientific scholarship is associatedwith objectivitystandardization
Humanistic scholarship is associatedwith subjectivityindividuality
Sciencefocuses on the discovered worlds; thehumanitiesfocus on the discovering person.
Social Scientific scholarship includeselements of science and the humanities, yet itdiffers from both. Social scientists study humanbehavior, they try to interpret patterns ofhuman behavior.
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WHATISRESEARCH?
to search for, to find out
Re(again) and cerc ie r(to search) [Latin]
Chercherseek [French] Looking for information about something
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WHATISRESEARCH?
Application of scientific method to studyof a problem.
A way to acquire dependable and
useful information.To discover answer to meaningful
questions through the application ofscientific procedures.
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WHATISRESEARCH?
Investigation or experimentation aimedto the discovery of facts, revision ofaccepted theories or laws in the light of
new facts or practical application ofsuch new or revised theories or laws(Babbie, 1998).
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SCHOLARLYRESEARCHVS. EVERYDAYRESEARCH
Everyday Research Scholarly Research
Intuitive Theory Based
Common Sense Structured
Casual Systematic
Spur of the Moment Planned
Selective (often) Objective
Magical Thinking Scientific Thinking
Flawed Thinking at Times Logical to the Extent Possible
Focus is Personal Dec isions Focus is Knowledge About Reality
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EVERYDAYRESEARCH: ORDINARYHUMANINQUIRY
Tradition
Authority
Intuition
Superstition
InaccurateObservations
Overgeneralization
Selective Observation Illogical Reasoning
Scholarly Research: Scientific Human Inquiry
Theory
Data Collection
Data Analysis
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SCHOLARLYRESEARCHVS. EVERYDAYRESEARCH
Scholarly research is more systematic, more careful
and more concerned about correctnessand
truthfulness (Berger, 2000).
ResearchDataInformationKnowledge
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BASICFOUNDATIONSOFRESEARCH
Theoretical vs. Empirical
Empiricalbased on data observations and
measurement.
Theoreticaltesting of theories and ideasabout our perceptions of reality.
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BASICFOUNDATIONSOFRESEARCH
Nomothetic vs. Idiographic
Mod e ls use d to e xp la in re a lity ; g e ne ra l o r sp e c if ic c a se
Nomothetic Modelthe group or sample is studied only tomake generalizationsthat apply larger population. Thus,follow a quantitative research designsthat put greaterpremium on reliability.
Idiographic Modelintensive investigations of individualcases hence, use qualitative research designs.
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BASICFOUNDATIONSOFRESEARCH
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
View the sub je c t o f the stud y, m e tho d o lo g y, a nd a na lysis
di f ferent ly
Quantitative Researchthe interest is in generalizing tomore than just the individual; Concerned with therecurrenceof data that can be translated or reduced tonumbers; Focuses on counting.
Qualitative Researchno intention of going beyondjustdeep intothe individual; Concerned with occurrence ofthe communication event; Focuses on the phenomenonand the process involved.
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RESEARCHTYPOLOGIES
Basic Research
According to its use/result:
Often associated with academic research
Refinement of concepts
Theory testing
Applied Research
Propose solutions to the problem
It has a purpose of acquiring knowledge foruseful ends
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RESEARCHTYPOLOGIES
Exploratory research/studies
According to its purpose:
What is the p henom eno n a ll a b ou t?
Descriptive research/studies
How d id t he p henom enon ha p p en? Whe re
o r in w ha t situa t io ns d id the p he nom enono c c ur? Wha t a re the c ha ra c te rist ic s o r
e lem ents o f th is p he nom enon? Who o r w ha t
a re invo lved ? a nd How m a ny a re invo lved ?
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RESEARCHTYPOLOGIES
Explanatory research/studies
Why d id t he p henom enon hap p en? Do (a nd
to w ha t e xte nt d o ) sp e c if ic fa c to rs o r
va ria b les c a use the p henom enon?
Evaluation research/studies
Wha t c om b ina t io n o f fa c to rs o r va ria b le s is
m o re e f fe c t ive in a c h ie v ing d e sire dou tc om es?
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RESEARCHTYPOLOGIES
Cross-sectional study
According to time:
Longitudinal studies
Considers a phenomenon or issue among
several people or groups within a single timeperiod. (e.g census, survey, polls)
Seek to discover whether and how thephenomenon or issue under considerationhas changed over the passage of time.
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RESEARCHTYPOLOGIES
Quantitative research/studies
According to its approach:
Qualitative research/studies
Comes from the Latin qualitas meaning of whatkind
Evaluation, judgment and taste
Comes from the Latin quantitas meaning howgreat how much how many
Numbers, magnitude and measurement
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QUANTITATIVEVS. QUALITATIVE
RESEARCHQuantitative Qualitative
Counts, Measures Evaluates
Processes data collec ted Uses concepts to explicateStatistical Theoretical
Describes, explains and predicts Interprets
Leads to hypothesis or theory Leads to an evaluation
Methodology can be attached Interpretation can be attacked
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QUANTITATIVEVS. QUALITATIVE
RESEARCHQuantitative Qualitative
Accused of being too narrow,basing their research on whatthey can count, measure andobserve and neglecting othermatters.
Accused of being reading intotexts things that are no there orhaving opinions or makinginterpretations that seem odd,excessive or even idiosyncratic.
Multi-Method or Triangulation
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IMPORTANCEOFKNOWINGTHETYPEOFRESEARCHAPPROACHTOBEUSED
Design
Instrumentation/Tools
Sample Data
Data Analysis
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THERESEARCHPROCEDURES
Select a research topicReview relevant literature
State the research problem and objectives
Formulate the study frameworkDetermine the appropriate methodology
Collect a relevant data
Analyze and interpret the result
Prepare the result report
Present the result in an appropriate forum
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THERESEARCHPROCEDURES
Select a research topicReview relevant literature
State the research problem and objectives
Formulate the study frameworkDetermine the appropriate methodology
Collect a relevant data
Analyze and interpret the result
Prepare the result report
Present the result in an appropriate forum
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QUESTIONS?
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References:
Media and Communication Research Methods, Arthur A.Berger
Survey Research Handbook, Pamela L. Alreck & Robert B. Settle
Social Research Methods,J. L Kumar
Practice of Social Science Research, Earl Babbie
Communication Research in the Philippines, Elena E. Pernia
Introduction to Communication Research, John Reinard
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCH
MODULE2: SELECTINGATOPICDr. Racidon P. BernarteCollege of Communication, PUP
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GUIDELINESINTHESELECTIONOFARESEARCHPROBLEMORTOPIC
The research problem must be chosen by the
researcher himself so that he will not make
excuses for all the obstacles he will encounter.
The problem must be within the interest of the
researcher so that he will give all the time and
effort in the research work.
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GUIDELINESINTHESELECTIONOFARESEARCHPROBLEMORTOPIC
The problem must be within the
specialization of the researcher. It will make
the work easier for the researcher because
he is familiar in the area and it will helphim improve his specialization, skill and
competence in his own area.
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GUIDELINESINTHESELECTIONOFARESEARCHPROBLEMORTOPIC
The research problem must be within the
competence of the researcher. The
researcher must know the procedures inmaking research and how to apply them.
He must have a workable understanding of
his study.
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GUIDELINESINTHESELECTIONOFARESEARCHPROBLEMORTOPIC
The research problem must be manageable. The
data must be available or within the capacity of
the researcher to gather data. The data must beaccurate, objective and not biased. The data
should help the researcher answer the question
being investigated.
G S
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GUIDELINESINTHESELECTIONOFARESEARCHPROBLEMORTOPIC
The research problem must be completed within
the period set by the researcher.
The research problem must be significant,important and relevant to the present time as
well as to the future. This means that the
research problem must have an impact to the
situation and people it is intended for.
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GUIDELINESINTHESELECTIONOFARESEARCHPROBLEMORTOPIC
The results of the study must be practical and
implementable.
The study must contribute to the humanknowledge. The facts and knowledge must be a
product of research.
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SOURCESOFTOPIC
Reading
Academic Experience
Daily Work Experience
Exposure to the Fields of Situations Consultations
Brainstorming
Past Research
Intuition
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QUESTIONSTOBEASKEDWHENIDEAISBORN
Is the idea viable? (Researchability)
Is it practical? (Feasibility)
The time factor? (Resources)
Has it been done before? (Novelty)
What result is expected? What do colleagues think?
Will a statistician be needed?
What is the communication aspect? (for
Communication research)
What do you want to know?
Why?
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WHATISRESEARCHPROBLEM?
A research problem is the situation that causes theresearcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at
ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a
certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the
WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problemsituation.
It is not:
(1) how to do something;
(2) a vague or too broad a proposition; (3) a value question.
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WHATISRESEARCHPROBLEM?
Research questions are interrogative statements that focus onwhat variables or concepts are to be described and whatrelationships might exist among them.
A problem statement is a clear, concise description of what aparticular body of research intends to focus on. The statement is
used to limit the scope of the problem. It should also inform thereader of the importance of the research and cause him to want toread on.
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IDENTIFICATIONOFTHEPROBLEM
The prospective researcher should think on what causedthe need to do the research (problem identification). Thequestion that he/she should ask is:Are there questionsabout this problem to which answers have not been found upto the present?
Research originates from a need that arises. A cleardistinction between the PROBLEM and the PURPOSEshould be made. The problem is the aspect the researcherworries about, think about, wants to find a an answer
for. The purpose is to find answers to the question(s). Ifthere is no clear problem formulation, the purpose andmethods are meaningless.
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EXAMPLEOFRESEARCHPROBLEM:
How has social networking influenced the self-presentation and communication activities of the
Filipino youth?
What is the role of on-air promotional strategies usedby selected FM radio stations in Metro Manila in the
radio listening decisions on unintentional listeners?
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RESEARCHOBJECTIVES:
Objectivesare definitions of various aspects or
dimensions of the problem. They guide the researcher
on what tasks or directions to undertake to address
the problem adequately. They are he criteria orindicators with which to measure the key concepts or
variables of the study.
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EXAMPLESOFOBJECTIVES:
Problem:How has social networking influenced the self presentation
and communication activities of the Filipino youth?
Objectives:
1. To draw a profile of the Filipino youth involved in online socialnetworking (OSN) in terms of:
1.1 OSNs they use
1.2 Membership in OSN1.3 Frequency of using OSN
1.4Motivations for OSN
2. To describe how the Filipino youth present themselves in OSN site.
3. To describe how Filipino youth use the features of an OSN site in their
communication activities4. To find out how OSN has influenced the self-presentation and
communication activities of the Filipino youth.
5. To determine the perceived advantages and disadvantages of OSN
6. To know the motivations of the Filipino youth for continuing to engagein OSN.
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EXAMPLESOFOBJECTIVES:
Problem:What is the role of on-air promotional strategies used
by selected FM radio stations in Metro Manila in the radiolistening decisions on unintentional listeners?
Objectives:
1. To identify the on-air promotional strategies of FM radio
stations that the respondents can recall.2. To determine the aspects of the strategies that facilitated
the respondents recall.
3. To find out the respondents attitude towards the on-airpromotional strategies.
4. To find out the respondents assessment of the relativeimportance of on-air promotional strategies (as againstother factors) in attracting listenership to a radio station.
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QUESTIONS?
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCH
MODULE3: REVIEWOFTHELITERATUREDr. Racidon P. BernarteCollege of Communication, PUP
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Literature Review is an account
of the materials, published orunpublished, on a specific topicby scholars and researchers.
It is guided by the researchproblem and objectives
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Related Literature is composed of discussionof facts and principles to which the present
study is related. (usua lly fo und on b ooks,e nc y c lo p e d ia s, p ro fe ssio na l journa ls, m a g a zine s,
new sp a p e rs, a nd o the r p ub lic a tio ns)
Related Studies, are inquiries or investigationsalready conducted to which the presentproposed study is related or has some bearing
or similarity. (e.g . usua lly unp ub lishe d m a te ria lssuc h a s m a nusc rip ts, these s a nd d isse rta t io ns)
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THEMATERIALSARECLASSIFIEDAS:
Local Literature and Studies
Foreign Literature and Studies
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IMPORTANCE, PURPOSESANDFUNCTIONSOF
RELATEDLITERATUREANDSTUDIES
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HELPSORGUIDETHERESEARCHERINSEARCHINGFORORSELECTINGABETTERRESEARCHPROBLEMORTOPIC.
Helps the investigatorunderstand his topic for
research better.
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Ensures that there will beno duplication of otherstudies.
Helps and guide theresearcher in locating moresources of related
information.
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RRLHELPSANDGUIDESTHERESEARCHERINMAKING
HISRESEARCHDESIGNESPECIALLYIN:
the fo rm ula t io n o f sp e c if ic q ue st io nsto b e re sea rc hed o n
the fo rm ula t io n o f
a ssum p t io ns a nd hyp o the se s if
the re sho u ld b e a ny
the fo rm u la t io n o f c o nc e p tua l
f ramework
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the se le c t io n a nd a p p lic a t io n o f
sa m p ling tec hn iq uesthe se le c t io n a nd a p p lic a t io n o f
re se a rc h m e thod s
the se le c t io n a nd a p p lic a t io n o f
sta t ist ic a l p ro c e d ure s
the se le c t io n a nd / o r p re p a ra t io n
a nd va lid a t io n o f re se a rc h
inst rum e nts fo r g a the ring d a ta
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the m a king o f the summ a ry o f
im p lic a t io ns for the w ho le stud y
the fo rm ula t io n o f the summ a ry of
f ind ing s, c o nc lusio ns, a nd
recommenda t i ons
the a na lysis, o rg a niza tio n,
p re se nta t io n , a nd in te rp re ta t io n o f
d a t a
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They help and guide the researcher inmaking comparison between his findingswith the findings of other researchers on
similar studies with the end in view offormulating generalization of principleswhich are the contributions of the studyto the fund of knowledge.
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CHARACTERISTICSOFRELATEDLITERATUREANDSTUDIES
1. The surveyed materials must be as recent aspossible.
2. Materials reviewed must be objective andunbiased.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study .
4. Surveyed materials must have been basedupon genuinely original and true facts or datato make them valid and reliable.
5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nortoo many.
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SOURCESOFRRL
Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and othersimilar references.
Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches,letters, and diaries.
Unpublished theses and dissertations. The Constitution, and laws and statues of the
land.
Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating fromgovernment offices and departments,especially from the Office f the President ofthe Philippines and the Department ofEducation, Culture and Sports.
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SOURCESOFRRL
Records of schools, public and private,especially reports of their activities.
Reports from seminars, educational, orotherwise.
Official reports of all kinds, educational, social,economic, scientific, technological, politicaletc. from the government and other entities.
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WHERETOLOCATERRL
Librariesgovernment, school, or private
Government and private offices
Internet and other Online sources
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TIPSINRESEARCHINGRRL
Dont let yourself be bogged down.
Dont entertain the illusion that you exhaust
all possible sources related to your topic.
Practice good not- taking skills when you areconducting your library research.
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QUESTIONS?
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE4: FORMULATINGTHESTUDY
FRAMEWORKDr. Racidon P. BernarteCollege of Communication, PUP
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WHATISFRAMEWORK?
FRAMEWORK refers to a set of conceptsusuallyborn out of a theory or a combination of theoriesthat are logically and sequentially arranged to
describe, explain and perhaps even predict theoccurrence of phenomena being studied.
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LEVELSOFTHESTUDYFRAMEWORK
Theoretical
Conceptual
Operational
Each level might also feature a Model (theoretical, conceptualand operational) that graphically illustrates the interconnectionsof the frameworksconstructs(theoretical model), itsvariables/concepts (conceptual model) and subsequently, itsmeasures/indicators(operational model)
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FORMULATINGTHEORETICALFRAMEWORK
The theoretical framework of the study is a structure
that can hold or support a theory of a research work.
It presents the theory which explains why the
problem under study exists.
Thus, the theoretical framework is but a theorythat
serves as a basis for conducting research.
Purpose:
It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the
study;
It can provide him with a general framework for data
analysis;
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For example:
Media Organization, Selection, and Production. McQuails
theory on media as an institution takes into account all forces
that affect medias performance. (After: Littlejohn, 1992)
Basic theory 1
Thesis examines the gatekeeping, news selection and reportage of
world news in leading Philippine dailies and primetime newscasts.
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For example:
Basic theory 2
Selective Gatekeeping. Galtung and Ruge selective
gatekeeping theory suggests that news from around the
world are evaluated using news values to determine their
newsworthiness. (After Mc Quail and Windahl 1993, p. 166)
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For example:
Basic theory 3
Model of the Agenda Setting Theory. Malcolm McCombsand Donald Shaws theory simply states that the issues
given most attention by the media will be perceived as the
most important. (Before: McQuail and Windahl 1993)
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For example:
Combined theory
Integrated Theoretical Framework. The integrated theoretical
framework shows how media content is shaped by pressures to the
media organization, selective gatekeeping and agenda setting.
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Based on the foregoing example, how should the theoretical
framework formulated?
1. specifies the theory used as basis for the study
2. mentions the proponents of the theory
3. cites the main points emphasized in the theory
4. supports his exposition of the theory by ideas from other experts;
5. illustrates his theoretical framework by means of a diagram; and,
6. reiterates his theoretical proposition in the study.
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FORMULATINGCONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK
After formulating the theoretical framework, the
researcher has to develop the conceptual framework of
the study.
A conceptis an image or symbolic representation ofan abstract idea. Chinn and Kramer (1999) define a
concept as a complex mental formulation of
experience.
While the theoretical framework is the theory onwhich the study is based, the conceptual framework is
the operationalization of the theory.
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FORMULATINGCONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK
Conceptual Framework is the researchers own
position on the problem and gives direction to the
study.
It may be an adaptation of a model used in a previousstudy, with modifications to suit the inquiry.
Aside from showing the direction of the study, through
the conceptual framework, the researcher can be able
to show the relationships of the different constructsthat he wants to investigate.
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Conceptual Framework. News values, and the pressures
and constraints shape the newspapers and television
newscasts. The result of this relationship is selective reporting
of events.
Conceptual Framework
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Theoretical Model Conceptual Model
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Based on the foregoing example, how should the conceptual framework
formulated?
1. cite your conceptual framework or paradigm;
2. Identify your variables;
3. Point out the dependent and intervening variables;
4. Show the direction of the study.
Once the conceptual framework has been determined, the next for the
researcher is to determine what research methods to employ to best
answer the research problem through the proposed framework.
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QUESTIONS?
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE5: RESEARCHMETHODS
Dr. Racidon P. BernarteCollege of Communication, PUP
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RESEARCHMETHODOLOGYANDRESEARCHMETHODS
Research Methodology
The techniques, methods and procedures in research.
Research Methods
The ways data are collected for the research project.
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RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY
Quantitative Research
generates statisticsthrough the use of large-scale survey
research, using methods such as questionnaires or
structured interviews.
involves analysis of numerical data.
Qualitative Research
explores attitudes, behavior and experiences through such
methods as interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an
in-depth opinion from participants. involves analysis of data such as words (e.g., from
interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g., an
artifact).
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RESEARCHMETHODS
Quantitative Methods (Soc ial and Communication Research )
Survey
Experiment
Content Analysis
Qualitative Methods (Main Type of Qualitative Research)
Case study
Grounded Theory
Phenomenology
Ethnography
Historical
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QUANTITATIVERESEARCHMETHODS
Quantitative Methods (Soc ial and Communication Research )
Survey
The collection of information from a large group of people, forthe purpose of inferring conclusions about a population fromwhich the group was selected.
Experiment
The comparison of groups and individuals who have beendifferently exposed to changes in their environment; theresearch procedures that establishes causality
Content Analysis A research technique for making inferences by systematically
and objectively identifying characteristics within a text.
Q
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QUALITATIVERESEARCHMETHODS
Qualitative Methods (Main Type of Qualitative Research)
Case study
Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying in-depth a
single case example of the phenomena. The case can be an
individual person, an event, a group, or an institution.
Grounded Theory
Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data acquired by a
participant-observer.
Phenomenology Describes the structures of experience as they present themselves
to consciousness, without recourse to theory, deduction, or
assumptions from other disciplines
Q R
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QUALITATIVERESEARCHMETHODS
Qualitative Methods (Main Type of Qualitative Research)
Ethnography
Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close field observation
of sociocultural phenomena. Typically, the ethnographer focuses on
a community.
Historical
Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to
past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes,
effects, or trends of these events that may help to explain present
events and anticipate future events. (Gay, 1996)
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QUESTIONS?
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE6: SURVEYDESIGN
Racidon P. Bernarte, MACollege of Communication, PUP
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WHATISSURVEY?
Involves the collection of information from alarge group of people for the purpose of
inferring conclusions about a population
from which the group was selected.
The use of structured questionnaire given to
a sample of a population and designed to
elicit specific information from therespondents.
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SURVEYVS. CENSUS
Surveyhas sampling while
Censusdoes not have
ADMINISTERINGSURVEYMETHODS
Self-AdministeredInterview
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TYPESOFSURVEY
Descriptive Surveys generally aimed at describing the distribution
of a phenomena in a population. Use basic
statistical toolsFrequency, Percentage, Mean,
Median and Mode.
Explanatory or Analytical Analysis
aimed at finding causal relationship between oramong variables. Use inferential statistics.
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MODEOFSURVEYMETHODSTelephone
Traditional
Computer Assisted
Personal Interview
Home
Mall
Computer Assisted
MailElectronic
Internet
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PROCEDURESINDOINGASURVEY
Identify the research problem and objectives
Select an appropriate sample
Construct the research instrument Identify and train interviewers
Collect data
Process and analyze data
Write the research report
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STRENGTHSANDWEAKNESSES
STRENGTHS:
Surveys are easy to administer
Surveys are simple to score and code
Surveys determine the values and relation
of variables and constructsSurveys can be used to predict behavior
Specific theoretical propositions can betested in an objective fashion
Surveys can help confirm the findings ofqualitative research
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STRENGTHSANDWEAKNESSES
WEAKNESSES:
Surveys are not sufficient to determine
the direction of causality
Surveys rely on self-support data
Survey studies are subject to well-known
types of bias
Conducting a scientific survey is not a
trivial undertaking
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QUESTIONS?
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE7: CONTENTANALYSIS
Racidon P. Bernarte, MACollege of Communication, PUP
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WHATISCONTENTANALYSIS?
A research technique for the systematicclassification and description of communicationcontent according to certain usually predetermined
categories. It may involve quantitative or qualitativeanalysis , or both. Technical objectivity requires thatthe categories of classification and analysis beclearly and operationally defined so that otherresearchers can follow them reliably.
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WHATISCONTENTANALYSIS?
A methodology by which the researcher seeks todetermine the manifest content of written, spoken,or published communication by system a tic ,
ob jec t ive , and qual i ta t iveanalysis. It is then, aquantitative method applicable to what hastraditionally been called qualitative materialwritten language
C C
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CHARACTERISTICSOFCONTENTANALYSIS
It examines a wide range of textsdetermine the presence of certain words,
concepts, themes, phrases, characters, orsentences within texts or sets of texts and to
quantify this presence in an objective manner.Can be done on material from various
communication contexts, interpersonal group ,organizational and mass.
Can be in print , audio, audio-visual andelectronic formats.
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CHARACTERISTICSCONT
Can be subjected the materials ranging fromdiaries, book chapters, essays, books,newspaper, discussions, historicaldocuments , advertising, Television
program, movies, internet sites,photographs, conversations, interviews andspeeches.
By examining hold and where words and
visuals are used in these texts, the analystis able to make inferences about the source,the audience, including their prevailingsocial, political and cultural contexts.
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PURPOSESOFCONTENTANALYSIS
to describe trend in the communication
content
to audit communication content
to analyze the persuasion techniques
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PURPOSESOFCONT..
to analyze style
to learn something about the content, those
who produced the messages/and or the
effects of the content might have on thereceivers
to get information about a topic and believe
that a content analysis rather than any
other research methods
to evaluate texts by using a set of standards
of criteria
C A C
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CONTENTANALYSIS: COMPARISON1.
Comparison of messages produced by the same sourceover different timeperiods would reveal trendsregarding any change in how the message is frame.
Comparison of messages produced by the same source indifferentsituations would reveal the effect of the
situation on the message. Comparison of messages produced by the same single
source for differentaudienceswould reveal ifaudience characteristics affect how messages are framed.
Comparison of two different messagesby the samesource would reveal any relationship between the twomessages.
Comparison of a communication material against anexisting standardwould make possible an evaluationof the communicators performance.
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STEPSINCONTENTANALYSIS
1. Define problem / identify the issue to be studied2. Select the media that will be used
3. Derive coding categories
4. Sampling strategy which sources will you use?
5. Train the coders6. Code the material
7. Analyze the data
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GETTINGSTARTED
What gets counted? words, pictures
What is important for understanding themes?
Explicit themes
Number of times mentioned Amount of space dedicated
Structured observation systematic observationbased on careful rules
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DERIVECODINGCATEGORIES: CODINGSYSTEMS
Before you decide specifically on coding categories, youmust specify what you are going to measure
Coding system a set of rules on how to systematicallyobserve and record content from text.
What is the unit of analysis?
One word
One paragraph
One theme
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CHARACTERISTICSOFTEXTCONTENT
Frequency Simply counting the number of times something occurs
Direction
Positive vs. negative; happy vs. sad Intensity
Strength of message
Minor vs. major issues
Space Number of sentences, amount of time, etc.
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OTHERCHARACTERISTICSTHATCOULDBECOUNTED
Other things that could be counted
characters
Specific individuals
semantics the meaning of the text
Requires interpretation
Must make judgment calls
concepts
Crime, mental illness
themes
LATENT VS MANIFEST CONTENT
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LATENTVS. MANIFESTCONTENT
Manifest overt, visible material
How many of times a word appears
How many times someone is mentioned
Highly reliable coding
No judgment Latent content symbolic content; semantic analysis
Ex. Level of violence
Requires judgment
Depends on coders prior knowledge, expectations, etc.
Often required writers portray meaning indirectly Lower reliability, increases with training
Allows for more flexibility
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DEVELOPSAMPLINGSTRATEGY
Which sources will be used?
Depends on purpose of study, theory, etc.
Which dates will be used?
What will be analyzed?
All of article, every 2 pages, etc.
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DEV. SAMPLING
Representative sample is a must!
Can use various sampling procedures
Random sampling
Stratified sampling
Purposive sampling picking a sample for a particular
reason.
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TRAINCODERS
Organize and practice Procedure really depends on how you have
decided to carry out the content analysis
Can use a recording sheet or coding form
Organization of sheet is key
Training improves use of sheet
Can use a counter
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CODERS
Must assess interrater reliability Do the coders agree?
Multiple measures of reliability
Correlate the raters scores together
Percentage of agreement
Krippendorfs alpha
the level of agreement between coders beyond that which can be
ascribed to mere chance
Common in content analysis
C
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ADVANTAGESOFCONTENTANALYSIS
-it is inexpensive it can deal with current events, topics of present-day
interest
it accepts unstructured materials which can be
categorized it uses materials that is easy to obtain and work with
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DISADVANTAGESOFCONTENTANALYSIS
- finding a representative sample determining measurable units
defining terms operationally
the rewards is not often
commensurate to the effort exerted
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QUESTIONS?
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE8:EXPERIMENT
Racidon P. Bernarte, MACollege of Communication, PUP
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WHATISEXPERIMENT?
A research design which has comparison of groups orindividuals who have been differently exposed to
changes in their environment
It establishes causality
Experimental designis the process of planning astudy to meet specified objectives. Planning an
experiment properly is very important in order to
ensure that the right type of data and a sufficient
sample size and power are available to answer the
research questions of interest as clearly and efficiently
as possible.
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APPLICATIONOFEXPERIMENT
Research involving relatively limited and
well-defined concepts and propositions
Hypothesis-testing Explanatory purposes of research
Studying small-group interactions
Evaluation research
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TYPEOFEXPERIMENTACCORDINGTOSETTING
Laboratory Experiment
Field Experiment
C E
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COMPONENTSOF EXPERIMENT
Control and Experimental Groups
Independent and dependent Variables
Pretest and Posttest
E
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EXPERIMENTALVALIDITY
Internal Validity It is the possibility that the conclusion drawn
from the experimental results may not
accurately reflect what has gone on in the
experiment itself.
External Validity
This is the inability to generalize experimentalresults to events and settings outside the
experiment itself.
Factors Affecting InternalValidity
Factors Affecting ExternalValidity
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History Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
Statistical
Regression
Selection
Mortality
Interaction of any
two factors
Testing-treatmentinteraction
Selection-treatment
interaction
Reactivearrangements
Multiple-treatment
interference
Validity Validity
T E D
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Pre-experimental designsare
characterized by a complete lack of
randomization and the absence of a
well-defined control group
One-group posttest only design
One-group pretest-posttest design
Two-group posttest design
TYPEOFEXPERIMENTALDESIGN
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True experimental designsuserandomization to achieve pre-treatment
equality of groups; features a wall-defined
control group
Pretest-posttest control group design
Posttest-only control group design
Solomon four-group design
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Quasi-experimental designsdo not meet the
requirements of experimental control mainly
because random assignment is not feasible,
but allowances are made in data analysis to
make up for the failure to meet theassumptions of classical experimental
designs
Multiple-time series design
Non-equivalent control group design
STEPSINCONDUCTINGANEXPERIMENT
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a. State a straightforward hypothesisappropriate for your research
b. Decide on an experimental design to test
your hypothesis
c. Decide on how to introduce the treatment or
create a situation that will induce the
independent variable
d. Develop a valid and reliable measure of thedependent variable
e. Set up the experiment
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f. Locate appropriate subjects
g. Assign the subjects to groupsh. Gather data for the pretest measure if the
design calls for it
i. Introduce the treatment to the experimental
group
j. Gather data for the posttest measure
k. Debrief the subjects by informing them to the
true purpose of the experimentl. Examine the data collected and compare the
results between different groups
Strengths of the ExperimentWeaknesses of
h E i
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Establishesevidence ofcausality
Allows control orisolation of theexperimentalvariable
Relatively cost-effective
Easy to replicate
Artificiality
(in the case of
laboratory
experiments)
Has limited
applications
Strengths of the Experiment the Experiments
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QUESTIONS?
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE9: CASESTUDY
Racidon P. Bernarte, MACollege of Communication, PUP
WHATISCASESTUDY?
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WHATISCASESTUDY?
An empirical study that investigates acontemporary phenomenon within its real-life
context, when the boundaries between the
phenomenon and its context are not clearly
evident
It is an exploration of a bounded systemor
a case (or multiple cases) over time through
detailed, in-depth data collection involvingmultiple resources or information rich in
context.
The focus may be on the case (because of itsuniqueness) that requires study (intrinsic
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uniqueness) that requires study (intrinsiccase study) or it may be on an issue or issues,
with the case used instruments to illustratethe issue (an instrumental case study) whenmore than one case is studied, it is referred toas collective case study.
Case study also involves a comprehensive andextensive examination of a particularindividual, group or situations over a period oftime.
In conducting a case study, the investigators should
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first consider what type of case study is most
promising and useful.
A comprehensive study of a social unit - be that unit
a person, a social institution, a group, a district, or
community.
The case consists of the data relating to some phase
of the life history of the unit or relating to the entire
life process, whether the unit is an individual, a
family, a social group, an institution, or a
community.
Data about the case from birth or origin or even ofthe future are considered.
SOME OF THE CHALLENGES INHERENT IN
QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY DEVELOPMENT ARE
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QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY DEVELOPMENT ARE
AS FOLLOWS
The researcher must identify his or her case. He or she mustdecide what bounded system to study recognizing thatseveral might be possible candidates for this selection andrealizing tat either the case itself or an issue, for which acase or case are selected to illustrate, is worthy of study.
The researcher must consider whether to study a single caseor multiple cases. The more cases an individual studies, thegreater the lack of depth in any single case. Typically,however, the researcher chooses no more than four cases.
What motivates the researcher to consider a large number ofcases is the idea of generalizability,a term that holds littlemeaning for most qualitative research.
Selecting the case requires that the researcherestablish a rationale or his or her purposeful sampling
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establish a rationale or his or her purposeful samplingstrategy for selecting the case and for gathering
information about the case.
Usually all aspects or variables in the life cycle of thecase under study are included.
Finding the causes of certain phenomena is always apart of a case study.
Representativeness is not important. The results of asingle case study do not provide certainty that thecase is truly representative.
Having enough information to present an in-depth
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picture of case limits the value of some case studies.
In planning a case study, develop a data collection
matrix in which they specify the amount of
information they are likely to collect about the case.
Deciding the boundaries of a case how it might be
constrained in terms of time, events, and processes
may be challenging. Some case studies may not have
clean beginning and ending points, and the
researcher will need to work with contrived
boundaries.
GENERAL STUCTURE OF THE STUDY
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Entry vignette Introduction (problems, questions, case
study, data collection, analysis outcomes )
Description of the case/s and its (their)
contextDevelopment of issues
Detail about selected issues
AssertionsClosing vignette
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Sampling. Purposeful sampling is generallyused in case study research; therefore, explain
sampling procedures and case selection, and the
defining characteristics and typicality or a
typicality of the case.
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Data.Draw the data either from one primarysource (e.g. oral interviews, journals, or essays)
or from multiple sources
DATA SOURCESOFCASESTUDY
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DATASOURCESOFCASESTUDY
DocumentsArchival records
Interviews
Direct observations
Participant observation
Physical artifacts
DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTFORCASESTUDY
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DATAGATHERINGINSTRUMENTFORCASESTUDY
Almost all data-gathering devices are used incollecting data for a case study. The interviewis very important
All persons who may be able to shed light onthe problem are interviewed. Long probinginterviewsmay also be conducted.
Another important tool is observation.
The questionnaire is another instrument.
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QUESTIONS?
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE10:PHENOMENOLOGY
Racidon P. Bernarte, MACollege of Communication, PUP
WHATISPHENOMENOLOGY?
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aims to identify and describe the subjectiveexperience of respondents. It is a matter ofstudying everyday experience from the pointof view of the subject, and it shuns criticalevaluation of forms of social life (Schwandt,
2001) Understanding of an event from the point of
view of the participant (Barritt, 2001) Is based on the belief that what people do
depends on what they perceived or what goeson their minds. Phenomenologist focus onhow internal, psychological meaning guidebehavior.
MAJOR PROCEDURAL ISSUES IN
USING PHENOMENOLOGY
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USING PHENOMENOLOGY
The researcher needs to understand thephilosophical perspectives behind the approach,
especially the concept of the study how people
experience a phenomenon.
The investigator writes research questions to
explore the meaning of that experience for
individuals and asks individuals to describe their
everyday lived experiences.
The investigator then collects data from individuals
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The investigator then collects data from individuals
who have experienced the phenomenon under
investigation.
The phenomenological report end s with reader
understanding better the essential, in variant
structure ( or essence), of the experience,recognizing that a single unifying meaning of the
experience exists.
WHYPHENOMENOLOGYISCHALLENGINGTO
USE?
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USE?
The researcher requires a solid ground inthe philosophical precepts of thephenomenology.
The participants in the study need to be
carefully chosen to be individuals whohave experienced the phenomenon.
Bracketing personal experiences by theresearcher may be difficult.
The researcher needs to decide how and inwhat his or her personal experiences willbe introduced into the study.
STEPS IN PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
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STEPSINPHENOMENOLOGICALSTUDY
The researcher begins with a full description of
his or her own experience of the phenomenon.
The researcher finds statements ( in the
interviews) about how individuals areexperiencing the topic, lists out these
significant statements ( horizonalization of the
data) and treats each statements as having
equal worth, and works to develop a list, non
repetitive, nonoverlapping statements.
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QUESTIONS?
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE11: SAMPLING
Racidon P. Bernarte, MACollege of Communication, PUP
WHATISSAMPLING?
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WHATISSAMPLING?
Sampling is a process of systematicallyselecting cases for a research project.
Sampling is that part of statistical
practice concerned with the selection ofindividual observation intended to yield
some knowledge about a population of
concern, esp. for the purposes of
statistical influence.
CENSUSVS. SAMPLE
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Census involves a complete enumerationof the elements of a population.
Samplethe sub group of the populationselected for participation of the study.
Populationis the aggregate of all elements,sharing some common set of
characteristics
SAMPLING
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Who isthe targetgroup for the study?
This is called thestudy population
Who inthe target
group should be
surveyed?
This is called the
sample.
How manypeople
should be surveyed?
This is called the
sample size.
How should the peopleto be surveyed by
selected?
This is called thesampling method.
THESAMPLINGDESIGNPROCESS
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1. Define the target population
2. Determine the sampling frame
3. Select a sampling technique(s)
4. Determine the sample size
5. Execute the sampling process
SAMPLINGDESIGNPROCESS
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Sampling Process
Defining the
population
Developing
a sampling
Frame
Determining
Sample
Size
Specifying
Sample
Method
SELECTING THE SAMPLE
PROBABILITYVS. NON-PROBABILITY
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Probability Samplingsampling basedon probability theory; this type of
sampling yields a sample that is truly a
representative of the population.
Non-Probability Samplingsampling
that does not follow the guidelines of
mathematical probability
THESAMPLINGTECHNIQUE
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i. Nonprobability Sampling Techniques
a. Convenience Sampling
b. Judgmental Sampling
c. Quota Sampling
d. Snowball Sampling
ii. Probability Sampling Techniques
a. Simple Random Sampling
b. Systematic Sampling
c. Stratified Sampling
d. Cluster Sampling
e. Other Probability Sampling Techniques
CLASSIFICATIONOFSAMPLINGTECHNIQUES
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Sampling Techniques
Nonprobability
Sampling Techniques
Probability
Sampling Techniques
Convenience
Sampling
Judgmental
Sampling
Quota
Sampling
Snowball
Sampling
Systematic
Sampling
Stratified
Sampling
Cluster
Sampling
Other Sampling
Techniques
Simple
Random
Sampling
NON-PROBABILITYSAMPLING
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Convenience--attempts to obtain a sample ofconvenient elements. Often, respondents are selected
because they happen to be in the right place at the
right time.
Judgmental/Purposive--is a form of convenience
sampling in which the population elements are
selected based on the judgment of the researcher.
Quotaconsists of developing control categories, or
quotas, of population elements.
Snowball or Referrala initial group of respondents is
selected then the respondents are asked to identify
others by referrals.
PROBABILITYSAMPLING
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Simple Randoma sample is drawn randomlyfrom a list of individuals in a population. It
can be done through; a. Lottery Sampling; b.
Use of Random Number Tables.
Systematicit is taking every nthmember ofthe population, where nis the reciprocal of the
percentage of the population which you would
like to use as a sample.
PROBABILITYSAMPLING
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Clusterconsidered a more practical approach to
surveys because it samples by groups or clustersof elements rather than by individual elements.
Stratifiedusually employed when the populationis composed of several strata or subgroups.
Multi-Stagethe population is divided into anumber of groups or primary stages from whichsamples are drawn; these are then divided intogroups or secondary stages from which samples
are drawn, and so on.
DETERMINATIONOFSAMPLESIZE
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Sample size may be determined by using:
Subjective methods (less sophisticated methods)
The rule of thumb approach: eg. 5% of
population
Conventional approach: eg. Average of
sample sizes of similar other studies;
Cost basis approach: The number that can
be studied with the available funds;
Statistical formulae (more sophisticated methods)
Confidence interval approach.
SLOVENSFORMULAINDETERMININGSAMPLESIZE
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n = N / (1 + Ne)
Where:n = number of samples
N = total population
e = error margin (.05 or .01)
or level of confidence
SLOVENSFORMULAINDETERMININGSAMPLESIZE
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n = N / (1 + Ne)
Where:n = ?
N = 1000
e = .05 margin of error or
95% confidence level
SLOVENSFORMULAINDETERMININGSAMPLESIZE
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n = N / (1 + Ne)
Where:n = 1000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05)
n = 1000 / (1 + .0025)
n = 285.71 samplings
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QUESTIONS?
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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE12: PRESENTATION, ANALYSISANDINTERPRETATIONOFDATA
Racidon P. Bernarte, DEMCollege of Communication, PUP
PRESENTATIONOFRESEARCH
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1. Tabular
AGE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
40 and below 16 19.0
41-50 18 21.4
51-60 11 13.1
61 and above 13 15.5
No Response 26 31.0
Total 84 100
Table 3
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents
in Terms of Age
PRESENTATIONOFRESEARCH
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2. Graphical
Graph 1
Sales Distribution for the Year 2013
ANALYSISOFRESEARCHDATA
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The table shows the gender of the respondents. There were 18 or 21.4% who
belonged to 41-50 age group; 16 or 19% whose ages belonged to 40 and below; 13
or 15.5% of the respondents belonged to 61 and above while 11 or 13.1%
belonged to 51-60 age group. However, 26 or 31% of the respondents did not
answer the question.
AGE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
40 and below 16 19.0
41-50 18 21.4
51-60 11 13.1
61 and above 13 15.5
No Response 26 31.0
Total 84 100
Table 3
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondentsin Terms of Age
INTERPRETATIONOFRESEARCHDATA
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Making sense of the data based on:
1. What the data is implying
2. What the researchers inference
3. What the literature is supporting or notsupporting
INTERPRETATIONOFRESEARCHDATA
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Table 14
Frequency and Percentage Distr ibution of the Nature ofAcademe-Industry Partnership in Terms of whether the
HEI is involved in Academe-Industry Partnership
Involved in Academe-
Industry Partnership
Frequency Percentage
Yes 76 90.5
No 8 9.5
Total 84 100.0
Table 14 showed 84 respondents 76 or 90.5% affirmatively answered the question while 8 or 9.5% negatively
answered the same. The data show that almost all HEI surveyed were involved in academe-industry partnership
which was supported by the CHED-ZRC study commissioned in 2010 that reported most of the HEI members of the
center were engaged in academe-industry partnerships which were limited to areas of internship, accreditation
requirements and student scholarship. Likewise, Tansinsins (2002) study confirmed the result, as she found that
many universities and institutions practiced universityindustry partnership. Many academic institutions,
particularly in the tertiary levels, were engaged in various collaborations with different industry-partners. Thepractice of partnership was limited to some areas like on-the-job trainings, graduate placement and curriculum
design as mentioned by Villegas (2009) in one of his articles. Although the data show that almost all HEIs in NCR
surveyed were involved in partnerships the study of WIPO (2005) reported that the collaboration between the
university and industry in the Philippines being new was not yet widespread. The findings and the study of WIPO
provide two pictures: one is the regional or NCR situation and the other was the national or the Philippine situation
in general.
QUANTITATIVEDATAANALYSIS
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Interpretation of Data Score Range Description
5 4.51-5.0 Very Extensive
4 3.51-4.5 Moderately Extensive
3 2.51-3.5 Adequate
2 1.51-2.5 Limited
1 1.0-1.5 Very Limited
LIKERTSCALE
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QUESTIONS?
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