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Choosing a path of change:Choosing a path of change:Envisioning a strategy for successful Envisioning a strategy for successful organizational changeorganizational change
MPA 8002
The Structure and Theory of Human Organization
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
As most managers/leaders know As most managers/leaders know from first-hand experience...from first-hand experience...
The primary maladaptation involves peoplepeople...…who enact differing views of reality
into what they define as the organizational reality (Weick,1979, 1995)
…and, thus, maladaptive behavior manifests itself in organizational dysfunction
Creating Paths of ChangeCreating Paths of Change(McWhinney, Webber, Smith, & Novokowsky, 1997)(McWhinney, Webber, Smith, & Novokowsky, 1997)
Asserts that organization change begins first with self-change...…that is, if manager/leaders are to
initiate organizational change, they first must understand how they view the world
…because how individuals view reality is a critical element in how they formulate a decision (p. 3)
Organizational change involves a Organizational change involves a five-step process...five-step process...
11 - to identify and understand one’s view of reality and attitudes toward change…requires managers/leaders to
grapple with all that is “antecedent” to a practice episode (Sergiovanni, 1986)
22 - to search for resources, people, money, and situations that match one’s image of what it will take to “work the larger issue”
…necessitates differentiating between organizational “problems” and the “issue” implicit in the problems
33 - to engage team members in examining one another’s views of reality as well as each member’s assets and deficits…provides the experiential base of
self-reflection and understanding of alternative views that enables team members to assess the current organizational situation (“reality”)
44 - to identify the organizational problem(s) and to organize resources into a coherent force…engages team members to identify
the maladaptation between people, process, and technology
…as these are attributed not to people but to the strengths and limitations of their differing views of reality
55 - to formulate a path of change…a path that allows managers/leaders
to solve the organizational issue by inculturating shared values (Schein, 1990, 1992)
…as followers solve problems as they emerge because the changing patterns of the followers’ interactions require new solutions
Creating Paths of ChangeCreating Paths of Change(McWhinney, Webber, Smith, & Novokowsky, 1997)(McWhinney, Webber, Smith, & Novokowsky, 1997)
Organizational change can consist of one of two grand paths of change...
…the grand path of renaissance…or the grand path of revitalization.
Each of these two grand paths utilize Each of these two grand paths utilize multiple modes of change.multiple modes of change.
Organizational change can also consist of a single, minor path...…socio-technical systems design…business process re-engineering
These minor paths These minor paths utilize one mode of utilize one mode of change.change.
…interactive planning…mediation…organizational design
Initiating either of the two grand Initiating either of the two grand paths of change...paths of change...
begins in the sensory reality…where there is evidence of a need
for organizational change…and managers/leaders start
“working an issue”…by choosing a direction to resolve
the conflicts between competing values
the goal of each grand path of organizational change...…is for the followers to begin
“working the problems” to successful solution
Initiating the minor paths of change...Initiating the minor paths of change...
begins in the sensory reality…where there is evidence of a need
for organizational change…and managers/leaders believe that
making a simple and well-identified intervention
the goal of the minor path of organizational change...…to deal effectively with immediate
problems that do not necessitate an “issue defined” change effort
The sensory view of reality in The sensory view of reality in action...action...
induce value
testFormulating Formulating
policies along policies along a revitalizing a revitalizing
pathwaypathway
Generating new Generating new ideas through a co-ideas through a co-
creative pathwaycreative pathway
Inquiring into Inquiring into values along a values along a
pathway of pathway of renaissancerenaissance
The origin and direction of the two The origin and direction of the two grand paths of organizational change...grand paths of organizational change...
value
test
The grand path of The grand path of revitalization revitalization begins in the begins in the analytic mode analytic mode
and uses the tool and uses the tool of testing to of testing to define the define the
direction of the direction of the path of changepath of change
The grand path The grand path of renaissance of renaissance begins in the begins in the
evaluative mode, evaluative mode, using the tool of using the tool of valuing to define valuing to define the direction of the direction of
the path of the path of changechange
Grand Path #1: Organizational Grand Path #1: Organizational renaissance...renaissance...
Grand Path #2: Organizational Grand Path #2: Organizational revitalization...revitalization...
Initiating the grand pathInitiating the grand pathof organizational renaissance...of organizational renaissance...
The grand path of organizational renaissance can begin with a desperate situation...
…where organizational action and outcomes are obsolete (e.g., “teddy bears” per Winnicott, 1958).
Or, organizational renaissance can begin in an entrepreneurial situation where an opportunity presents itself...
…and organizational action can pave the way for new possibilities...
with the outcome...
…of a dramatic organizational turnaround
…or of an organizational rebirth in a new form.
The grand path of organizational The grand path of organizational renaissance begins with action...renaissance begins with action...
Step 1: A measured loss of meaning...Step 1: A measured loss of meaning...Data indicateData indicatesome form ofsome form oforganizationalorganizational
failurefailure
action where problems arise
“game playing” on the first board...
structural problems
human resources problems
political problems
…to identify what isn’t working and won’t work any longer
cultural/symbolic problems (Bolman & Deal, 1997)
Step 2: Evaluative mode...Step 2: Evaluative mode...
To elicit what matters:To elicit what matters:why do we dowhy do we dowhat we do?what we do?
values1 how problems are defined
“game playing” on the third board...
antecedents
theories of practice
organizational culture
organizational environment
…to elicit what really matters
with the outcomes...
…communicating…bargaining…allocating
Step 3: Emergent mode...Step 3: Emergent mode...
To co-createTo co-createimages that reflectimages that reflect
shared valuesshared values
truth a substantive vision
“game playing” on the sixth board...
provides meaning and purpose
rooted in culture and perdures beyond individuals
abstract, needs to be made concrete in human experience
…to co-create a new truth based upon shared values
Step 4: Assertive mode...Step 4: Assertive mode...
To formulateTo formulatepoliciespolicies
that expressthat expressthe visionthe vision
power1 how problems are dealt with
“game playing” on the second board...
coercive
remunerative
normative (Simon, 1947)
…to formulate new policies reflecting new truth
Step 5: Analytic mode...Step 5: Analytic mode...
To put new policiesTo put new policiesinto actioninto action
power2 how problems are dealt with
“game playing” on the second board...
coercive
remunerative
normative (Simon, 1947)
…to put new policies into practice
power
values
truthThe desired managerial/leadership outcome being that...
action
…while followers “work the problems” toward solutions
…the manager/leader “works the issue” toward resolution
Initiating the grand pathInitiating the grand pathof organizational revitalization...of organizational revitalization...
The grand path of organizational revitalization is used most frequently by managers/leaders in response to moderate organizational crises...
…features organizational adaptation (e.g., contingency theory per Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967).
The purpose of organizational revitalization is to strengthen the extant organization...
…though various technical processes (e.g., Total Quality Management [TQM], Continuous Quality Improvement [CQI]), Organizational Development [OD], Organizational Re-engineering).
The grand path of organizational The grand path of organizational revitalization begins with action...revitalization begins with action...
Step 1: Awareness of a problem...Step 1: Awareness of a problem...Data indicateData indicatesome form ofsome form oforganizationalorganizational
failurefailure
action where problems arise
“game playing” on the first board...
structural problems
human resources problems
political problems
…to test the “one best way” (Taylor, 1911)
cultural/symbolic problems
Step 2: Analytic mode...Step 2: Analytic mode...
To renew organizationalTo renew organizationalpurpose, policies, and goalspurpose, policies, and goals
power how problems are dealt with
“game playing” on the second board...
coercive
remunerative
normative (Simon, 1947)
…to make the organization responsive to its reality
Step 3: Assertive mode...Step 3: Assertive mode...
To mobilize people aroundTo mobilize people aroundthe renewed organizationalthe renewed organizationalpurpose, policies, and goalspurpose, policies, and goals
truth a substantive vision
“game playing” on the sixth board...
provides meaning and purpose
rooted in culture that perdures beyond individuals
abstract, needing to be made concrete in human experience
…to facilitate the adoption of shared values among all stakeholders
Step 4: Emergent mode...Step 4: Emergent mode...
To motivate workers to valueTo motivate workers to valuethe renewed organizationalthe renewed organizationalpurpose, policies, and goalspurpose, policies, and goals
values how problems are defined
“game playing” on the third board...
antecedents
theories of practice
organizational culture
organizational environment
…to identify and divide up job roles and responsibilities
Step 5: Evaluative mode...Step 5: Evaluative mode...To allocate To allocate
responsibilities andresponsibilities andengage in actionengage in action
action where problems arise
“game playing” on the first board...
structural problems
human resources problems
political problems
…to develop “team” accountability for renewed purpose, policies, and goals
cultural/symbolic problems
power
values
truthThe desired managerial/leadership outcome being that...
action
…while followers “work the problems” toward solutions
…the manager/leader “works the issue” toward resolution
Either of the two grand pathways Either of the two grand pathways of organizational change...of organizational change...
ultimately leads back to the sensory reality...
…which is the logical end point of action intended to solve problems.
Initiating the minor pathsInitiating the minor pathsof organizational change...of organizational change...
Minor Path #1: Socio-technical Minor Path #1: Socio-technical systems design (STS)...systems design (STS)...
a minor path where resolutions to organizational problems...
…can emerge from the natural adaptive behaviors of those who do the work (e.g., “holographic organization” [Nonaka & Takenchi, 1995]; “organizational learning” [Argyris & Schön, 1978]).
begins as managers/leaders recognize the need to change policies to reflect the workers’ values...
STS...STS...
STS...STS...
STS...STS...
To change policiesTo change policiesto reflect theto reflect the
workers’ valuesworkers’ values
mode:mode:tool:tool:
evaluativevalue
STS...STS...
To build aTo build avalue consensusvalue consensusamong involvedamong involved
managers and workersmanagers and workers
mode:mode:tool:tool:
influentialpersuade
STS...STS...
A contract (“charter”)A contract (“charter”)sets thesets the
limits for worklimits for workdesigndesign
mode:mode:tool:tool:
influentialconvert
STS...STS...
Cross-functionalCross-functionalwork teams designwork teams design
more efficientmore efficientoperationsoperations
mode:mode:tool:tool:
analyticdesign
Minor Path #2: Organizational Minor Path #2: Organizational process re-engineering (OR)...process re-engineering (OR)...
a minor path where resolutions to organizational problems...
…can emerge by integrating the internal operations with the forces present in the environment (e.g., “autopoeisis” [Maturana & Varela, 1980]; “contingency theory” [Burns & Stalker, 1961]; “population ecology” [Aldrich, 1979]).
begins as managers/leaders recognize dissatisfaction expressed by external stakeholders...
OR...OR...
OR...OR...
OR...OR...mode:mode:tool:tool:
analytictest
Managers/leadersManagers/leadersrecognize therecognize theorganization’sorganization’s
failure in dealingfailure in dealingwith environmentalwith environmental
turbulenceturbulence
OR...OR...mode:mode:tool:tool:
assertiveinspire
A management teamA management teamorganizes findingsorganizes findings
and identifies aand identifies anew designnew design
OR...OR...mode:mode:tool:tool:
assertiveestablish
Managers/leadersManagers/leaderscodifycodify
policy changespolicy changes
OR...OR...mode:mode:tool:tool:
analyticdesign
Managers/leadersManagers/leadersimplement new policiesimplement new policies
Minor Path #3: Interactive Minor Path #3: Interactive planning (IP)...planning (IP)...
a minor path where resolutions to organizational problems...
…can emerge as intra-organizational experts are combined to discover the most rational plan for more effective operations (e.g., “adhocracy” [Bennis, 1966]; “matrix organization” [Mintzberg, 1979]).
begins as managers/leaders recognize that the organization’s internal operations are ineffective...
IP...IP...
IP...IP...
IP...IP...
Teams produce designsTeams produce designsto eliminate the messesto eliminate the messes
identified in analytic studiesidentified in analytic studies
mode:mode:tool:tool:
inventiveinduce
Leaders/managersLeaders/managersselect the mostselect the most
promising scenariopromising scenario
IP...IP...mode:mode:tool:tool:
assertiveestablish
Leaders/managersLeaders/managerscodify new policiescodify new policies
IP...IP...mode:mode:tool:tool:
analyticdesign
Minor Path #4: Mediation and Minor Path #4: Mediation and Arbitration (MA)...Arbitration (MA)...
a minor path where resolutions to organizational problems...
…can emerge as contracted disputants establish new rules governing a more “level playing field” (e.g., “labor-management teams” [Wainwright & Elliott, 1982]; “radicalized organization” [Burrell & Morgan, 1979]).
begins as managers/leaders recognize management-labor conflict...
MA...MA...
MA...MA...
ManagementManagementidentifies conflictidentifies conflict
and disputantsand disputants
mode:mode:tool:tool:
influentialconvert
MA...MA...
Management-labor teamManagement-labor teamengages in fact findingengages in fact finding
mode:mode:tool:tool:
influentialpersuade
MA...MA...
Management-labor teamManagement-labor teamidentifies procedureidentifies procedure
for resolutionfor resolution
mode:mode:tool:tool:
influentialconvert
MA...MA...
Labor acceptsLabor acceptsprocedure forprocedure for
solutionsolution
mode:mode:tool:tool:
influentialpersuade
Minor Path #5: Organizational Minor Path #5: Organizational Development (OD)...Development (OD)...
a minor path where resolutions to organizational problems...
…can emerge by utilizing a value base to formulate a shared set of paths (Bennis, 1966; Levinson, 1972)
begins as managers/leaders establish lists for an acceptable change effort...
OD...OD...
OD...OD...
OD...OD...mode:mode:tool:tool:
evaluativevalue
The needThe needto enhance theto enhance themeaning andmeaning and
quality of workquality of workand efficiencyand efficiency
OD...OD...mode:mode:tool:tool:
emergentevoke
Building aBuilding avalue consensusvalue consensus
OD...OD...mode:mode:tool:tool:
emergentfacilitate
SharingSharingvaluesvalues
OD...OD...mode:mode:tool:tool:
evaluativeallocate
Shared valuesShared valuesused to assessused to assess
performanceperformance
This module has focused on...This module has focused on...
Choosing a pathway of changeChoosing a pathway of change. It has featured the primary choices confronting organizational managers/leaders as problems emerge. The choice of pathway requires courage, which enables managers/leaders to “work the organizational issue” by enabling followers to “work the organizational problems.”
ReferencesReferences
Aldrich, H. (1979). Organizations and environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1978). Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Bennis, W. G. (1966). Changing organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Bolman, L., & Deal, T. (1997). Reframing organizations (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Burns, T., & Stalker, G. (1961). The management of innovation. London, UK: Tavistock.
Burrell, G., & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and organizational analysis. London, UK: Heinemann Educational Books.
Lawrence, P. R., & Lorsch, J. W. (1967). Organization and environment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration.
Levinson, H. (1972). Organizational diagnosis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Maturana, H., & Varela, F. (1980). Autopoeisis and cognition: The realization of the living. London, UK: Reidel.
McWhinney, W., Webber, J. B., Smith, D. M. , & Novokowsky, B. J. (1997). Creating paths of change: Managing issues and resolving problems in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Mintzberg, H. (1979). The structuring of organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Nonaka, I., & Takuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge-creating company. New York: Oxford University Press.
Simon, H. A. (1945/1997). Administrative behavior: A study of decision-making processes in administrative organizations. New York: The Free Press.
Taylor, F. W. (1911). The principles of scientific management. New York: Harper & Row.
Wainwright, H, & Elliott, D. (1982). The Lucas plan: A new trade-unionism in the making. London, UK: Allison & Busby.
Winnicott, D. W. (1958). Transitional objects and transitional phenomena. In D. W. Winnicott, Collected papers. London: UK: Tavistock.
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