Chinese-American Foods: Geography, Culture and...

“Tellmewhatyoueat,andIwilltellyouwhatyouare.” 　　(Frenchgastronome,JeanAnthelmeBrillat-Savarin,1755-1826)

Chineseness TheChinesepeopleoftheworldcomprisewhatKotkin(1993)referredtoasaoneofthefive“globaltribes”.LikethoseofJewishancestryandAsianIndiandecent,theChinesearegeo-graphicallydispersedoneverycontinent,haveastrongsenseofcommonracialorigininChina,andareoftenconnected tooneanother throughbusinessandothersocialnetworks.Theyareanessentialandgrowingsegmentofthenewglobaleconomyofthe21stcentury,whichischaracterizedbyborderlesstransnationalismandflexiblecitizenship(Ong,1999).TheChinesetribecomprisesfoursegments,eachofwhichhassignificantinternalvariations.Thefirst,andarguablymostdominant,isthemainlandPeople’sRepublicofChina.Beyondthemainland,theOverseasChinesediasporacanbedivided intothreedomains (Lew&Wong2002): (1)ethnicHanChinese livingoutsideofmainlandChina,butwithin the “greaterChina”region,which

＊ Professor,DepartmentofGeography,Planning&Recreation,NorthernArizonaUniversity

Journal of East Asian Studies, No.14, 2016.3. （pp.217-228）

（Abstract）Food isamajorwaythatChinese,andotherethnicgroups,engagewiththeirculturalheritage.Behavioralperspectivesfromtourismstudiesgive insight intotherangeof foodneophyllics (loveofnewfoods)and foodneophobics (fearofnewfoods),aswellas theroleofauthenticity in foodexperiences.Threegeneral typesofChinese foodare identified in theUS:ChineseAmerican(restaurant)Food,RealChinese (restaurant)Food, andAmericanBornChinese (home)Food.TraditionalChineseAmericanrestaurant food issuitedtonon-Chinese,dominantAmericantastepalates,and ismostlysafe for foodneophobics in theUS.RealChineserestaurant food ismoresuited to thepalatesof firstgenerationChinese immigrantsandnon-Chinese foodneophylics.AmericanBornChinesehome foodsconsistsof the familyrecipes thatwerebrought fromtheregionsinChinawherefirstgenerationancestorscamefrom,andmaybethemostauthenticofallChinesefoodsintheUS.

Keywords:Ethnic food,Chinese food,AmericanBornChinese,Chinese immigrants,Chineserestaurants,Foodneophobic,Foodneophilic,Authenticity

Chinese-American Foods: Geography, Culture and Tourism

LEW Alan A.＊

2015年山口大学東アジア研究科研究員論文

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includes“compatriots”inHongKong,MacaoandTaiwan;(2)ethnicChineselivinginAsianre-gionsbeyondgreaterChina,mostlyinSoutheastAsia,JapanandKorea;and(3)ethnicChineselivingoutsideofEastAsiaandSoutheastAsia,whichisthesmallestofthethreegroups.Themajorityofthis lastgroupareinNorthAmerica,thoughtheyarealso livingandworkinginalmosteverycountryoftheworld.The2011censusestimatesfortheUSindicates4.01millionethnicChineseinthecountry,whichisthelargestoftheAsianethnicgroupsinthecountry(EWC,2015).Thiswasanincreaseof47%overthe2000population,andmadeupabout1.2%ofthetotalUSpopulation. Chinese foodplaysamixedandsometimescomplicatedrole in the lifeand identityofdiasporaOverseasChineseAmericans. It is, forexample,oneof the fundamentalwaysthatOverseasChineseengagewiththeir“Chineseness” in formingandmaintainingtheirpersonalidentity(Tsaietal.2000).InadditiontoChinesefood,OverseasChineseengagewiththeireth-nicitythroughspeakingaChineselanguageordialect,beingaffiliatedwithChinesesocialorga-nizations,participatinginChineserelatedactivities(suchascelebratingfestivals),andbeingex-posedtoChineseculturethroughvariousmedia.However,evenfortheseotheractivitiesandinstitutions,Chinesefoodoftenplaysasignificantidentifyingrole.Thefoodsweeat,thewaywecookthem,whatwecallthem,andhowweeatthemdisplayssubtlenuancesthathavetheabilityto includeandexcludethroughtheirsimilaritiesanddifferencesincomparisontopre-scribednorms(Lu&Fine,1995).Simplytalkingaboutfoodinthe“right”way,candemonstratethespeaker’sheritagefluency(Bucholtz&Hall,2005;Hall-Lew&Starr,2010;Shavzin,2014).　Chinesefoodengagement(definedaseatingfoodasawayofperformingone’spersonaliden-tity)tendstochangeovertime,withanespeciallylargedifferenceinthetransitionfromfirsttosecondgenerationChinese.Firstgenerationimmigrants(born,andatleastpartiallyraised,inthegreaterChinaregion),wereimmersedinChinesecultureintheirformativeearlyyears,anduponarrivingintheUStheyhadtheoptionofselectivelydroppingsomeChineseculturaltraitsandselectivelyadoptingsomeAmerican traits (Tsai, etal., 2000).TheirChineseness,therefore,ismeasuredbythedegreetowhichtheykeepordropChinesetraits,someofwhichtheymayreadoptindifferentsocialcircumstancesoratlaterstagesinlife.ThisgenerationofOverseasChinesetendtomaintainaverystrongChinesefoodidentityaftermigratingtotheUS,usuallypreferringitoverallothercuisines. Second,andsubsequent,generationAmericanBornChinese(ABCs),ontheotherhand,aremuchmoreselectiveanddiverseintheirengagementwithChinesefoods.BeingraciallyChi-nese,theygrewupinbothChineseandAmericancultureatthesametime.Formost,Chinesecultureisexperiencedinthefamily,theChinesecommunity(associatingwithotherChinese),andthroughChinese food.Americanculture for them isexperiencedthroughschool,work,non-Chinesefriends,andinmostpublicspaces.TheirChinesenessismeasuredbythedegreetowhichtheyengagewithChineseculture,includingfood.Somewillengagemorethanothers,andtheirengagementmaychangeovertime.

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AnexampleofthetransitionbetweenfirstandsecondgenerationChinesefoodhabits isseeinNanandBrown’s(2010)interviewswith20firstgenerationChinesecouplesfromChinaandTaiwan,butwhohadmovedto thestateofPennsylvania.They foundthat thecouplesmostlyateAmericanbreakfasts,whichweremoreconvenient,butmaintainedChinesemealsfor lunchanddinner.Their children,however,preferred “unhealthy”western foodswhenoutsidetheirhome,andgenerallyrefusedtoeatvegetablesevenwhenathome.Thesegen-erationalfoodpreferencesresultedinconsiderableconflictbetweentheparentsandtheirchil-dren,thoughsomeofthedifferencesmaybemoreuniversalthanspecifictofirstandsecondgenerationChineseAmerican families.Epidemiologicalstudieshavealso foundthatChineseAmericanshavehigherratesofseveralchronicdiseasesthantheirAsiancounterparts,includ-ingdiabetesandheartdisease,whichhavebeenshowntobedietrelated,atleastinpart(Nan&Cason,2004). Whatmaymakethesituationmoresignificant forChineseAmericans is thecontextoftraditionalChinesefoodculture,whichplacesgreatimportanceonfood(Quan&Wang2004).ForethnicChinese,meals,especiallydinner,serveasacenterpointforfamilyandpeergroupsocialinteractions.Insomeways,theeventismoreimportantthantheparticularfoodthatisbeingserved.Wherethetypeof foodbecomes important for theChinese, includingChineseAmericans,isinthepursuitifhighqualityfoods(Lu&Fine,1995;Chang1977;Newman2004).QuanandWang(2004)suggestedthatChinesecultureencouragesthe“broadeningofculinaryknowledge”inpursuitofauthentic“peakexperiences”througheating.Ontheotherhand,em-piricalstudiesofChinesetouriststravelingoverseasindicatethat,whiletheyareinterestedinexoticnon-Chinesefoods,theygenerallyprefertheseinaChinesecontext(Changetal.2010).Inotherwords,eitherpurelyChinesefood,orsomeformofChinese-localfusioncuisine,ispre-ferredoverauthenticallypurelocalfood,whichmaybelessappealingtotheirpalateandthusresulting inadegreeofcultureshock.Thispatternexists formanyothertravelers,aswell,especiallymasstourists.

Diversity of Ethnic Culinary Experiences GoingouttoeatatanethnicrestaurantintheUSiswhatZelinsky(1985:51)referredtoas“gastronomictourism,”becauseitgivesthedineraglimpseofaculturethatisdifferentfromthedominantAmericanculture.Modelsoftouristbehaviorcanalsoprovideinsight intohowpeopleapproachethnic foodexperiences,whichcanbeasdiverseas is thehumanpalate.Amajordichotomyisbetween“foodneophobics”(afraidofnewfoodexperiences)and“foodneo-phylics”(seekingoutnewfoodexperiences)(Cohen&Avieli2004).Asecondmajordichotomyisrelatedto foodauthenticity,withmore locallyauthentic foodstendingtobepreferredbyfoodneophylics.LuandFine (1995), intheirstudyofChineserestaurants inAthens,Georgiaintheearly1990s,sawthisasthedifferencebetweenmassconsumptionorientedrestaurants,

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servingChinese fast-food,andconnoisseurorientedrestaurants,servingmorediscriminatingdiners.Cohen(1979)extendedthesedichotomiesto identifyarangeofwaysthattouristsen-counteredfoodwhentheytravel:

(1) Recreational/Mass Tourists(passivehedonists)-self-indulgent,seekrelaxationanden-joyment;highlyfoodneophobicwithnospecialinterestinlocalfoodauthenticity;

(2) Sightseeing Tourists(gazingon“others”)–neophylicinterestinlocaldishesandfoodhabits;butneophobicinconsuminglocalfoods;mighttrylocalfoodsinasafetourismsetting,suchasinanupscalehotel;

(3) Experimental/Participatory/Adventure Tourists (tryinglocal life)–neophyllicinterestinlocalfoodandmildlyneophylicwillingnesstotrylocalfoodsinlocalestablishments;butstillpreferthefamiliarfoodsofhome;

(4) Existential/Identity Tourists (adopting local life)–stronglyneophyliic interestsandconsumptionhabits;seekoutthemostauthenticlocalfoodwhentravelingtoadesti-nation;onlyeatlocalfoodswhentraveling,therebyparticipatinginaculinaryswitch-ingofworlds.

Inanempirical studyofChinese tourists fromChina,HongKongandTaiwanvisitingAustralia,Changetal.(2010)foundasomewhatsimilartypologyinfoodbehaviors.Theysug-gestedthreecategoriesoffoodattitudes.“Browsers”werethosewhowereambivalenttowardlocalfoods,astheyfeeltheywillneverbeuptoparwiththeirhomefoods.Browserstendedtofocusmoreonotheraspectsoftravelinsteadoffood.“Observers”,thesecondtype,showedaninterestedintheexoticnessofAustralianfoodsandwerewillingtotrythemasuniqueexperi-ences.However,theytendedtopreferfusionversionsofAustralianandChinesefoods,becausetheystillfeltaneedforChinesefoodforsustainedtheirnutrition.Thethirdgroupwere“Par-ticipators”,who indulge inAustralian local foodandsoughtoutpeak local foodexperiences,whichbecameanimportantpartoftheirtourismexperience. In termsofdiasporaethniccuisines,however,authenticitycanbecomplicated (Wang,1999).“Objectauthenticity”referstofoodthatareanaccuratereplicationofdishesmadeinthehomeland,eithercooked inarestaurantor inahome.However, fromtheperspectiveof theconsumer,thatmaybeless importantthan“SubjectiveAuthenticity”,whichistheirpersonalperceptionofitsauthenticity.Subjectivitycanbeinfluencedbymanyexternalsources,includ-ingmovies,lifeexperiences,friends,andcharacteristicsoftherestaurantinwhichthefoodisserved(Chhabra,etal.,2013).Anethnicwaiter,alongwithethnicartandmusic,canmakethefoodsubjectivelymoreauthentic.Athirdtypeofauthenticity,“ExistentialorExperientialAu-thenticity”,referstoapeak,euphoricorperhapsevenspiritualfoodexperience,inresponsetothefood’staste,presentationorcontext.Thiscanoccurindependentofobjectiveandsubjectiveauthenticities,butmaybethemostmeaningfulofthethreetotheconsumer.

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Three Types of Chinese Food in the US Tourism-basedbehavioral typologiesprovide insight intotherangeofOverseasChinesefoodsintheUS,andpossiblyotherethnicfoodsintheUSandelsewhere(Chhabra,etal.,2013).Thisrangeoffoodsexistonacontinuum,withChinesefoodsthathaveevolvedforanexclu-sivelymassAmericanpalateononeextreme,andthose foramostlyChina-born immigrantpalateontheotherextreme.Forthepurposesofthispresentanalysis,thesearereferredtoas“ChineseAmericanFood” (basedonthecommonphrase“ChineseAmericanrestaurant”)and“RealChineseFood,”respectively.ThereisathirdtypeofChinesefoodfoundintheUSthatisnotencompassedinthesetourism-basedtypologies.ThethirdtypeisfoodthatiscookedathomebyethnicChinesefamilies,andmaybestbedescribedas“AmericanBornChineseFood,”eventhoughthisgivessomepreferencetosecondgenerationChineseexperiences.

Chinese American Food FusioncuisinesthatgivelocalflavorstotraditionalChineseingredientsandcookingmeth-odsarecommon throughout theOverseasChineseworldoutsideofGreaterChina.ThesefoodsarecreatedbyChinese immigrantswhoopenChineserestaurants,butneedtoadjustthefoodstheyknowtothepalatesandpreferencesoflocalresidents(whoarealmostentirelynon-Chinese)(Lu&Fine,1995).IntheUS,thefirstChineserestaurant(abuffet)openedinSanFranciscoin1849whenChineseimmigrantswereattractedtotheUStoworkontherailroadsandtominegold(Karnow,1994).Overseveraldecades,theseimmigrantsevolvedastandard“ChineseAmerican food”menubyadjustingtheir food fortheEuro-Americanpalate.Today,thestandardChineseAmericanfoodrestaurantisfoundinalmostanycityortownintheUSwithmorethanathousandpeople,andtheirmenusarelargelyidentical,thoughsomeregionalvariationsexistamongeastcoast,westcoast,andinsomepartsoftheSouth.Someofthemostcharacteristicdishesthataredistinct toChineseAmericanrestaurantsare listed inTable1andFigure1.

==============================================Table 1. Standard Chinese American Restaurant Menu Items in US. - Sweetandsourpork - Orangechicken - ChopSuey - GeneralTso’sChicken - BeefandAmericanbroccoli - MongolianBeef - CraborCreamCheeseFriedWontons - FriedRicepreferredoverwhiterice;BrownRiceasanoption - FortuneCookies(fordessert)==============================================

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ChineseAmericanrestaurant fooddiffers fromtraditionalmainlandChineseofferings inthatithasmoremeat,muchofwhich isheavilybattered (coveredwith flour)andfried,and it isservedwithveryfewvegetable(andnoleafygreenvegetables).AmericanChinesefoodsaremostlystir friedandcoveredwithsweet,stickysauces.Steamingandboilingarequiterare.ThesedishesaregenerallynotintendedforethnicChineseconsumption,andespeciallynotforfirstgenerationnewimmigrants.ThecooksinChineseAmericanrestaurantweretraditionallyfirstgenerationChinesewhowouldcookverydifferentfoodsforthemselves.(Today,increas-ingnumbersofChineseAmericanrestaurantcooksinsomepartsoftheUSareMexicanimmi-grants.)

Real Chinese Food Fromtheverybeginning,someChineseAmericanrestauranthadtwomenus:onefornon-ChineseandtheotherforethnicChinese.ThesecondmenucomprisesdishesthatthecookswouldmakeforthemselvesandwasoftenwritteninChineseonly(resultingintheirbeingre-ferredtoas“secretmenus”bynon-Chinese)(Huang,2012).ThiswasRealChineseFood.Whilemanynon-Chineserestaurant-goerswereawareof thesesecondmenus, theytendedtostayawayfromthembecauseoftheirmoreexotic flavorsand ingredients (at leasttoastandardAmericanpalate). ForfirstgenerationChineseAmericans,thesecondmenufoodoptionsalsohadanostalgiavalue,bringingthembacktotheirChinahomeland.ForsecondgenerationChineseAmericans

Figure 1. Chinese American Restaurant Menu from the 1950s.

Source:GrandCanyonCafé,Flagstaff,Arizona(usedwithpermission)

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(ABCs),knowledgeofthesemenus,andthepotentialtheyofferedforapeakfoodexperience,becamean identity indicatorof theirChineseness.Someof theseRealChineseFoods (asop-posedtoChineseAmericanFoodthatisintendedfornon-Chinesediners)haveespeciallyhigh“Chineseness”statusvalue forsecondgenerationAmericanBornChinese.ToeatandenjoythemisasignthatoneistrulyChinese.SomeofthesearelistedinTable2.

============================================================Table 2. “Chinese American” Menu Items found in some US Chinese Restaurants. - MostDimSum(DianXin)dishes,butespeciallyChickenFeet - MostClaypotdishes - Chinesesausage(lahpcheonginCantonese),Roastpork,BBQDuck - Bittermelonandleafygreenvegetables,suchasGaiLaan(Chinesebroccoli) - Pomelo,Jungzi(Chinesetamale),Mooncake,Tofupudding(douhua),Congee(Jouzi) - Whitericeonly,preferablyveryfluffy============================================================

RealChineseFooddishesarealsosoughtoutbyChinesefoodconnoisseurswhoarelook-ing forpeakeatingexperiences,as theyarecloser to traditionaldishesserved inmainlandChina.OpportunitiestosavorRealChineseFoodshavegrownconsiderablyintheUSasmajormetropolitanareashavewelcomedgrowingnumbersofethnicChineseimmigrantsfromSouth-eastAsia,aftertheendoftheVietnamWarin1975,andfromthePeople’sRepublicofChinaas itgraduallyrelaxedemigrationstarting inthe1980s. Inthe largestcitiesof theUS,RealChineseFoodiswidelyavailable,althoughtheChinese“secretmenu”canalsostillbefound,aswell. CharacteristicsofthesetwodifferentcuisinesareshowinTable3.Largenumbersofnon-ChineseAmericans find theChineseAmericanrestaurantpalate foods to their taste,whichexplainswhysomanyrestaurantsservethesefoodsacrossthecountry.Ontheotherhand,theexistenceofRealChineseFoodprovidesanelementofadventureandpotentialpeakculinaryexperiencesforethnicChinese,aswellasforthemoreadventuresomenon-Chinese.Thecon-tinuumalsoshowsthatthere issomevariation indegreesof“authenticity”,reflectingthedi-verseoriginsofdifferentChinesedishes(bothwithinChinaandinthegreaterEastandSouth-eastAsiaregions),aswellasthedegreetowhichdifferentrestaurantswillofferamoreAsian-marketorientedfoodoption.

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American Born Chinese Food ThethirdtypeofethnicChinese food found intheUS is thehomecookeddishes foundinethnicChinesehomes.AlthoughreferredtoasAmericanBornChineseFood,thisincludesmealsmadeby firstgeneration immigrants to theUS,aswell.Many, ifnotmost,of thesedishesarerelativelyrareinChineserestaurantsbecausetheyreflecttheuniquefoodsthatthefirstgenerationimmigrantChinesebroughtwiththemfromtheirlocalregionsinChina.Chinaisaverylargeandextremelydiversecountryinwhicheachcountycanhaveitsowndistinctfoodspecialties.It is impossibletocapturethisdiversityinthecommercialfoodlandscapeoftheUS,andsothehomecookedChinesefoodsmaybethemostobjectivelyauthenticofthethreetypesoffoodspresentedhere. Immigrantsareoftenmore likely tomaintain traditionalwaysofdoing things, suchascooking,thanarethoseinthehomelandfromwhichtheycame(Ong,1999).Thisisbecausethehaveagreatersenseofnostalgia fromtheirhome,andbymaintainingtraditions, ithelpstothemtomaintaintheiridentityinthefaceofdisplacementanduncertainty.Eatingfoodsthatarebasedinfamilytraditionstrengthenstheirpersonalheritageandattachmenttotheirmoth-erland.Atthesametime,theyalsoneedtoadjusttotheopportunitiesandlimitationsonfoodingredientsavailableintheiradoptedland.Thisrequiresinnovation,resultinginhomecookedAmericanBornChineseFoodsbecomingamixandfusionofChineseAmerican (restaurant)

======================================================================Table 3. American palate and Chinese palate characteristics in Chinese-American cuisine.

AmericanPalateChineseFoodsoftheUS(ChineseAmericanFoods) - MadefortheNon-ChineseAmericantastepalate - Preferredbyfoodneophobiceaters - PreferredbymoreAmericanizedsecondgenerationABCs(“bananas”) - MenusalwaysinEnglish,andmostlywithnoChinese - Wok-basedstirfryinganddeepfrying;mostlyCantonesedishes,butmoremeat - Individualdishes,chopsticksoptional - Considered“Authentic”ChineseAmericanfoodbymostnon-ChineseAmericans - Considered“Inauthentic”bymany,butnotall,ethnicChineseAmericans

ChinesePalateChineseFoodsoftheUS(RealChineseFoods) - MadeforChineseAmericanwhowerebornandraisedinChina - Preferredbyfoodneophyliceaters - Preferredby firstgenerationChineseAmericansandsecondgenerationwho identifymorewith

Chineseness - Preferredbynon-ChinesewithstronginterestsinChineseculture(“eggs”) - MenusmostlyinChinese(“SecretMenus”),thoughsomemayhavetranslations - Moresteamingandboiling;moreregionaldishes;morevegetables - Familystyle(shared)eatingwithchopsticks - Considered“Authentic”bymostethnicChineseAmericans - Consideredpotentially“upalatable”bymanynon-ChineseAmericans======================================================================

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Foods,RealChineseFoods,andtraditionalfamilyrecipes. Unfortunately,witheachsuccessivegeneration,therecipesofthefirstgenerationances-torsaremore likelytobeeithertransformedor lostaltogether.Socialmedia,suchasethniccookingclassesonYouTube,andincreasedinternationaltraveltohomelandregionscanhelplessenthisdilution,butonly if latergenerationshavean interest inpursuingthoseopportu-nities.Ontheotherhand,eachnewgenerationof immigrantsbringsnewfoods fromChina,wherethecuisineisevolvingandinnovatingmuchmoresothanamongOverseasChinese. BecauseofthediverseregionalbackgroundofthemanyethnicChineseintheUStoday,itisnotpossibletochroniclethefoodsthatcompriseAmericanBornChineseFood.Thereis,however,onedishthatisprobablyauniquelyfirstandsecondgenerationABCfoodthatcan-notbefoundinarestaurant,butisservedatleastonceayearinalmosteveryChinesehomeintheUS.This is turkeycongee (juk inCantonese;zhou inMandarin).Congee isaricepor-ridge.AroastedturkeyisthetraditionalAmericanmealforThanksgiving,aharvestfestivalthat isheldannuallyattheendofNovember.Americanscookafullturkey,whichisfartoomuchmeat foronemeal.ThedayafterThanksgiving, ethnicChineseAmericans take thebones fromtheturkeyandmakeoneof themost flavorfulversionsofcongeepossible.ThisdishisnotfoundoutsideoftheUS(andmaybeCanada)becauseturkeymeatisnotcommonanywhereelseintheworld.Somewhatdifferentfromthedishesabove,turkeycongeemightbemoreofanidentifierofbeingaChinese-American,ratherthanjustbeingChinese.

Conclusions FormanyAmericans,goingtoaChinese (orotherethnic)restaurant intheUS isa lotlikeatravelandtourismexperiencetoaforeigncountry.Thereisanelementofexperiencingsomethingthatisbeyondthemundaneandordinarydailyliferoutine.Thereisevenasenseofadventureandanexotic,thoughalsoverysafe,crossingofculturalandracialterritories.ForChineseAmericans,goingtoaChineserestaurant isalso liketravelandtourismtoanotherplace.However, intheircase,theotherplaceispartoftheirpersonalheritage–likevisitingChina.EatingataChineserestaurantbecomesawaytoconnectwiththeirculturalheritage,perhapsexperiencingdifferentversionsofthatheritagethanonemightexperienceathome. ThefundamentaldifferentiationamongtheChinesecuisineoptionsthatareavailabletodayintheUSreflectsthedifferencesbetweenChinesefoodasanexternalandexoticexperience,andChinesefoodasaninternalandidentityexperience.Theseexperienceswillvaryconsider-ablyfromonepersontothenext,nomattertheirethnicbackground.ForthosewhoareluckyenoughtoliveinoneofthemajorpopulationcentersofChineseandotherAsianpeoplesintheUS,therangeofopportunitiestoengagetheirtastesand identities inpeakand identitysup-portingwaysisenormousandgrowingeveryyear.

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