View
35
Download
1
Category
Tags:
Preview:
Citation preview
The Study of Human Development
Chapter 1
Recurring Issues in Human Development
1.) Nature vs Nurture2.) Continuity vs
Discontinuity3.) Universal vs Context-
Specific Development
Nature vs Nurture
Nature = – biology & genes have a greater effect
on development
Nurture = – environment has a greater influence on
development
• What do we know?• What are researchers concerned
with now?
Continuity vs Discontinuity
• Continuity = – change occurs gradually & smoothly
• Discontinuity = – Change occurs suddenly & abruptly
Universal vs Context Specific
Universal:• One path of development for all
people
Context Specific: • Development involves an interaction
of environment
Biopsychosocial Framework
• Combination of 4 interactive forces1.) Biological Forces• Genetic, Health related
2.) Psychological Forces• Cognitive/perceptual, emotional,
personality
3.) Sociocultural Forces• Societal, cultural, ethnic, interpersonal
4.) Life-Cycle Forces• Identical events, different age groups
Life Cycle ForcesExample
Pregnant Teen• Biological: lack of
nutrition in diet• Psychological: worried,
anxious, depressed• Sociocultural:
perceived as negative, outcast at school
Pregnant Married 30 yr old
• Biological: Healthy diet, vitamins
• Psychological: Excited, Nervous
• Sociocultural: Supported by family and friends
Biopsychosocial Framework Summary
• Mutually interactive• Development cannot be understood
by examining in isolation• Encompasses life span yet
appreciates unique aspects of each phase of life
Developmental Theories
Ch. 1
What is a theory?
• An organized set of ideas designed to explain behavior & development• Essential for developing predictions
about behavior• Predictions result in research that
helps to support or clarify the theory
Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human
Development• Psychodynamic– Freud, Erikson
• Learning–Watson, Skinner,
Bandura
• Cognitive– Piaget, Vygotsky
• Ecological & systems
– Bronfenbrenner, Lawton & Nahemow
• Life span– Baltes
Psychodynamic Theories
• Development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts at different ages
Sigmund Freud• Founder of psychoanalysis• Believed the mind is organized into
2 main parts1. Conscious 2. Unconscious
• Emphasized unconscious mind on behavior
Contributions of Freud’s Theory
• Highlighted value of considering unconscious wishes and feelings
• First to show early experiences have profound impact on development
• Stressed the influence of early parent-child relationship on development
Erik Erikson
• Student of Freud• Psychosocial theory - lifelong theory
(stages from infancy to late-late life)
Stage AgeBasic Trust vs
Mistrust0-1 yr
Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt
1-3 yrs
Initiative vs Guilt 3-6 yrs
Industry vs Inferiority 6-Adolescence
Identity vs Identity Confusion
Adolescence
Intimacy vs Isolation Young Adulthood
Generativity vs Stagnation
Middle Adulthood
Integrity vs Despair Late Life
Stages of Psychosocial Theory
Learning Theory
What is Learning Theory?• Concentrates on how learning
influences behavior• Emphasizes the role of
experience• Stresses the influence of
consequences on behavior• Recognizes that people learn
from watching others
Behaviorism• Environment shapes behavior• Useless to consider internal mental
states• Theorists:
• Ivan Pavlov• John Watson• B.F. Skinner
Ivan Pavlov•Classical conditioning -learning occurs through associations between environmental stimulus & naturally occurring stimulus•Example: Pavlov’s Dog
John Watson•infants’ minds =“blank slates”
(tabula rasa)•Classical conditioning able to
explain all aspects of human psychology
•“Little Albert”•http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE&feature=player_embedded
John Watson• Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-
formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors”. (Watson, 1924, p. 104)
B.F. Skinner• Behavior depends on what happens
after the response• Operant Conditioning– The consequences of a behavior
determine whether the behavior is repeated in the future
Operant Conditioning:Reinforcement
• Reinforcer –• Strengthens the behavior
• Positive reinforcement• Negative reinforcement
Operant Conditioning:Punishment
• Punishment = • decreases the likelihood of the behavior
• Positive punishment• Negative reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
Social Learning Theory• Observational learning, or imitation
– People learn by watching others– Imitation is more likely when the
subject of observation is seen as smart, popular, or talented
– Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is rewarded for the behavior
Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
• Cognition emphasizes thinking• Based on cognition and experience;
we understand our abilities, developing differing degrees of self-efficacy
• Consequences are insufficient to cause us to repeat behaviors or imitate them
• High self-efficacy is also needed
Basic Social Learning concepts:
Observational Learning•Bobo Doll experiment:
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU&feature=related
•3 basic models of observational learning:
1.A live model 2.Verbal instruction3.Symbolic model
Basic Social Learning concepts:
Intrinsic Reinforcement•Mental states important to learning•Intrinsic reinforcement - form of internal reward
•Emphasis on internal thoughts & cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories
Basic Social Learning concepts:
The Modeling Process•Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior
•Steps involved in observational learning & modeling process:
1.Attention 2.Retention 3.Reproduction 4.Motivation
Cognitive Developmental Theory
Cognitive Development Theory
•Stresses development of thought processes
•Three approaches• Piaget: we develop in discrete stages
• Vygotsky: societal expectations of what we should know at different ages and “apprenticeship” experiences shape development
• Information-processing theory: like computers, we become more efficient at processing information as we mature
Jean Piaget
• Most influential developmental psychologist of the 20th century
• Revolutionized how we think about child development
• Believed early cognitive development based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations
Piaget’s Theory
• Children gradually learn more about how the world works by little “experiments” in which they test their understanding
• Cognitive development consists of stages in which children’s understanding of their surroundings becomes increasingly complex and accurate
Piaget’s Theory
• 4 distinct stages in development1. Sensorimotor – Birth to 2 yrs
• The Child interacts with the world through sensation and movement • Develops the ability to hold a mental
representation of objects
2. Preoperational Thoughts – 2 to 6 yrs• Develops the ability to use symbols• Egocentric: understands the world only
from his/her own perspective
Piaget’s Theory
3.) Concrete Operational Thought (7 years to early adolescence)
• Can use logic and reasoning• Cannot accurately consider the hypothetical
4.) Formal Operational Thought (Adolescence and beyond)
• Thinks abstractly• Deals with the hypothetical concepts
Support for Piaget’s Theory
• Piaget’s Impact on Education–Many educational programs based that
children should be taught at level they are developmentally prepared
– Instructional strategies have been created from Piaget’s work (i.e. providing supportive environment, utilizing social interactions & peer teaching)
Criticism for Piaget’s Theory
• Problems with research methods• Problems with formal operations• Underestimates children’s ability
Information-Processing Theory
• Views humans as information processing systems
• Believes humans process the info they receive rather than merely responding to stimuli
• Compares the mind to a computer
Information-Processing Theory
• Uses the computer as a model of how thinking develops
• Mental hardware: psychological structures, such as memory capacity
• Mental software: cognitive abilities that process information and help us to interact with the world
• Both improve with development
Information-Processing Theory
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
• Emphasizes sociocultural influences on child development
• Focuses on how adults convey aspects of their culture to children
• Potential for cognitive development depends upon “zone of proximal development”
Ecological & Systems Approach
Ecological Theory
• All aspects of human development are interconnected
• No single aspect can adequately explain development
• Need to consider all factors: environmental, family, political, social, etc., and how they interact
Ecological Theory:
Bronfenbrenner’s Theory
• Urie Bronfenbrenner – developing person is embedded in a series of complex & interactive systems
• Divided the environment into 4 levels1. Microsystem2. Mesosystem3. Exosystem4. Macrosystem
Lawton & Nahemow’sCompetence-Environmental
Press Theory• Adaptation, or development, depends
upon:– A person’s abilities or “competencies”– Demands the environment (“presses”)
places on the person – Emphasis is on how these factors
interact
Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization
with Compensation, and Life-Course Perspective
Current Perspectives
• Life-Span Perspective– Many factors influence development;
no one factor adequately explains it…all must be considered
• Selective Optimization with Compensation– Describes choices that determine and
regulate development and aging
Current Perspectives (Cont)
• The Life-Course Perspective– Examines how different generations
experience and adjust to biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces within the historical time-period of their lives
Matilda Riley’sLife-Span Perspective
• Emphasizes the need to view the entire life-span to understand a person’s development
• The social, environmental, and historical aspects of one’s life must be considered
• Learning about patterns of development influences society
Four Features of the Life-span Approach
• Multidirectionality– Development involves both growth &
decline
• Plasticity– One’s capacity is not predetermined
or carved in stone
Four Features of the Life-span Approach
(Cont)
• Historical Context–Historical time periods must be
considered in examining development
• Multiple Causation– Biological, psychological,
sociocultural, and life-cycle changes must be considered
Baltes: Selective Optimization With Compensation (SOC)
• Elective Selection–Making choices to reduce involvement
in order to concentrate on another
• Loss-based Selection– Reducing involvement because of lack
of resources or abilities
• Compensation– Finding alternate ways of meeting goals
due to loss of ability or diminished skills
The Life Course Perspective
• Emphasizes how– personal life-events interact with
historical influences– individual issues integrate with
family issues– earlier life events and the period of
history in which they occurred shaped subsequent events and issues
Developmental Research
Measurement
• 4 Approaches1. Systematic Observation2. Sampling Behavior with Tasks3. Self-Reports4. Physiological Measures
Systematic Observation
• Naturalistic Observation– Observed as they behave
spontaneously in real life– Strength: Captures behavior in
natural setting–Weakness: Difficult to use with
behaviors that are rare or typically occur in private settings
Systematic Observation
• Structured Observation– Observed in a created setting that
elicits behavior of interest– Strength: Can be used to study
behaviors that are rare or typically occur in private settings
–Weakness: May be invalid if structured setting distorts the behavior
Sampling Behavior with Tasks
• Created tasks that sample the behavior of interest
• Strength: Convenient (can be used to study most behaviors)
• Weakness: May be invalid if task does not sample behavior as it naturally occurs
Self-Reports
• People’s answers to questions about the topic of interest
• Written form = questionnaire; oral = interview
• Strength: Convenient• Weakness: May be invalid because
of incorrect answers
Physiological Measures
• Measuring peoples physiological responses
• Strength: Provide a more direct measure of underlying behavior
• Weakness: Highly specific in what they measure and cannot be applied broadly
Evaluating Research Methods
• Reliability– Does this method consistently
measure what is being studied?
• Validity– Does this measure provide a true
picture of what is being studied?
Representational Sampling
• Populations– Broad groups of people in which
researchers may be interested
• Sample– A subset of the population chosen to
represent the population
Designs for Research
Research Designs:Correlational Studies
• Measures relationship between variables as they are observed naturally in the world
• Provides an index called the correlation coefficient (“r”) which indicates the strength of the relationship between variables
Research Designs:Correlational Studies
• Correlation Coefficient• Ranges from -1.0 to 1.0• Sign indicates direction of the
relationship• Size indicates the strength of the
relationship
• Correlation does not prove causation
Research Designs:Correlational Studies
•Strengths:•Behavior is measured as it occurs naturally
•Weaknesses:•Cannot determine cause & effect
Research Designs:Experimental Studies
• Studies the effect of one variable on another
• Studies possible “cause and effect” relationship
• Usually conducted in laboratory-like settings
Research Designs:Experimental Studies
• Factors• Variables:
– An object, event, idea, feeling, time period, or any other type of category you are trying to measure
– 2 Types1.Independent variable
» The factor being manipulated (i.e. listening to music vs no music)
2.Dependent variable» The behavior that is studied for possible
change (i.e. test scores)
Research Designs:Experimental Studies
• Random Assignment– Each person has an equal chance of
being assigned to each condition• Conditions
1.Experimental Condition - independent variable present
2.Control condition - independent variable absent
Research Designs:Experimental Studies
• Strengths:– Control of variables; can conclude
cause and effects• Weaknesses:
– Work is often lab based- can be artificial
Qualitative vs. QuantitativeInclude focus groups, in-depth interviews, & reviews
Surveys
More subjective More objective
Text based Number based
More in depth info on few cases
Less in depth but across large number of cases
Less generalizable More generalizable
Designs for Studying Development
• Longitudinal Studies• Observes or tests one group of individuals
over a long period• Microgenetic study
• Strengths:• Charts individual’s development over time
• Weaknesses:• Expensive• High drop out rate• Become “Test-wise”
Designs for Studying Development
• Cross-Sectional Studies• Observes or tests groups of different ages
• Issues:• Cohort effects• Example: Ability to use web based
information
Designs for Studying Development
• Ability to use web based information• Year studied: 2005• Age of subjects:
• 1985 - 20 yrs • 1965 - 40 yrs• 1945 - 60 yrs• 1925 - 80 yrs
• Cohort effect or development effect?
Designs for Studying Development
Designs for Studying Development:
Cross Sectional Studies
• Strengths• Convenient• Solves problems with longitudinal studies
• Weaknesses:• Can’t study stability of behavior• Cohort effects complicate interpretation
of differences between groups
Designs for Studying Development
• Sequential Studies• Combination of cross-sectional &
longitudinal designs
• Strengths:• Allows for flexibility to collect info in
several ways• Avoid cohort effects
• Weaknesses• Very expensive & time consuming
Integrating Findings from Different Studies
• Meta-Analysis• Analysis of many studies to estimate
relations between variables• Allows scientists to verify findings across
many studies
Conducting Research Ethically
• Minimize and warn of any risks to participants
• “Informed Consent”• Avoid deception• Individual results or data must be kept
anonymous or confidential• Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Communicating Research Results
• Research results are published in scientific journals
• To be published in journals, research results must be useful, well-done, & original
Applying Research ResultsSocial Policy
• Driving age• Stem cell research• Adoption policies
Recommended