Bread - Wikipedia

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Bread

Variousleavenedbreads

Mainingredients Flour,water

Cookbook:Bread Bread

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Breadisastaplefoodpreparedfromadoughofflourandwater,usuallybybaking.Throughoutrecordedhistoryithasbeenpopulararoundtheworldandisoneoftheoldestartificialfoods,havingbeenofimportancesincethedawnofagriculture.

Therearemanycombinationsandproportionsoftypesofflourandotheringredients,andalsoofdifferenttraditionalrecipesandmodesofpreparationofbread.Asaresult,therearewidevarietiesoftypes,shapes,sizes,andtexturesofbreadsinvariousregions.Breadmaybeleavenedbymanydifferentprocessesrangingfromtheuseofnaturallyoccurringmicrobes(forexampleinsourdoughrecipes)tohighpressureartificialaerationmethodsduringpreparationorbaking.However,someproductsareleftunleavened,eitherforpreference,orfortraditionalorreligiousreasons.Manynoncerealingredientsmaybeincluded,rangingfromfruitsandnutstovariousfats.Commercialbreadinparticular,commonlycontainsadditives,someofthemnonnutritional,toimproveflavor,texture,color,shelflife,oreaseofmanufacturing.

Dependingonlocalcustomandconvenience,breadmaybeservedinvariousformsatanymealoftheday.Italsoiseatenasasnack,orusedasaningredientinotherculinarypreparations,suchasfrieditemscoatedincrumbstopreventsticking,ortheblandmaincomponentofabreadpudding,orstuffingsdesignedtofillcavitiesorretainjuicesthatotherwisemightdripaway.

Partlybecauseofitsimportanceasabasicfoodstuff,breadhasasocialandemotionalsignificancebeyonditsimportanceinnutritionitplaysessentialrolesinreligiousritualsandsecularculture.Itsprominenceindailylifeisreflectedinlanguage,whereitappearsinproverbs,colloquialexpressions("Hestolethebreadfrommymouth"),inprayer("Giveusthisdayourdailybread")andevenintheetymologyofwords,suchas"companion"and"company"(literallythosewhoeat/sharebreadwithyou).

Contents

1Etymology2History3Types4Preparation

4.1Formulation4.2Flour4.3Liquids4.4Leavening

4.4.1Chemicalleavening4.4.2Yeast4.4.3Sourdough4.4.4Steam4.4.5Bacteria4.4.6Aeration

4.5Fatsorshortenings4.6Breadimprovers

5Properties5.1Chemicalcomposition5.2Servingandconsumption

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5.3Nutritionalsignificance5.4Shelflife5.5Crust

6Culturalsignificance6.1Europe6.2LatinAmerica6.3NorthAfrica6.4Asia6.5NorthAmerica

7Religioussignificance7.1AbrahamicReligions7.2Paganism

8Antibreadmovements9InMedicine10Seealso11References12Furtherreading13Externallinks

Etymology

Theworditself,OldEnglishbread,ismostcommoninvariousformstomanyGermaniclanguages,suchasFrisianbrea,Dutchbrood,GermanBrot,Swedishbrd,andNorwegianandDanishbrdithasbeenclaimedtobederivedfromtherootofbrew.Itmaybeconnectedwiththerootofbreak,foritsearlyusesareconfinedtobrokenpiecesorbitsofbread,theLatincrustum,anditwasnotuntilthe12thcenturythatittooktheplaceasthegenericnameforbreadofhlaf(hlaifsinGothic:modernEnglishloaf),whichappearstobetheoldestTeutonicname.[1]OldHighGermanhleib[2]andmodernGermanLaibderivefromthisProtoGermanicwordfor"loaf",whichwasborrowedintoSlavic(Polishchleb,Russiankhleb)andFinnic(Finnishleip,Estonianleib)languagesaswell.

Inmanycultures,breadisametaphorforbasicnecessitiesandlivingconditionsingeneral.Forexample,a"breadwinner"isahousehold'smaineconomiccontributorandhaslittletodowithactualbreadprovision.Thisisalsoseeninthephrase"puttingbreadonthetable".TheRomanpoetJuvenalsatirizedsuperficialpoliticiansandthepublicascaringonlyfor"panemetcircenses"(breadandcircuses).InRussiain1917,theBolshevikspromised"peace,land,andbread."[3][4]Theterm"breadbasket"denotesanagriculturallyproductiveregion.InSlavicculturesbreadandsaltisofferedasawelcometoguests.InIndia,life'sbasicnecessitiesareoftenreferredtoas"roti,kapraaurmakan"(bread,cloth,andhouse).InIsrael,themostusualphraseinworkrelateddemonstrationsislekhem,avoda("bread,work").

ThewordbreadiscommonlyusedaroundtheworldinEnglishspeakingcountriesasasynonymformoney[1](asisthecasewiththeword"dough").AremarkableorrevolutionaryinnovationisoftenreferredtoinNorthAmericaandtheUnitedKingdomas"thegreatestthingsinceslicedbread"or"thebestthingsinceslicedbread".InCockneyrhymingslang,breadmeansmoneythisusageisderivedfromthephrase"breadandhoney".[5]

History

Breadisoneoftheoldestpreparedfoods.Evidencefrom30,000yearsagoinEuroperevealedstarchresidueonrocksusedforpoundingplants.[6]Itispossiblethatduringthistime,starchextractfromtherootsofplants,suchascattailsandferns,wasspreadonaflatrock,placedoverafireandcookedintoaprimitiveformofflatbread.Around10,000BC,withthedawnoftheNeolithicageandthespreadofagriculture,grainsbecamethemainstayofmakingbread.Yeastsporesareubiquitous,includingthesurfaceofcerealgrains,soanydoughlefttorestwillbecomenaturallyleavened.[7]

Thereweremultiplesourcesofleaveningavailableforearlybread.Airborneyeastscouldbeharnessedbyleavinguncookeddoughexposedtoairforsometimebeforecooking.PlinytheElderreportedthattheGaulsandIberiansusedthefoamskimmedfrombeertoproduce"alighterkindofbreadthanotherpeoples."Partsoftheancientworld

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Breadshop,TacuinumSanitatisfromNorthernItaly,beginningofthe15thcentury

Whitebread(left)andbrownbread.

ClassicFrenchbread,boule.

thatdrankwineinsteadofbeerusedapastecomposedofgrapejuiceandflourthatwasallowedtobeginfermenting,orwheatbransteepedinwine,asasourceforyeast.Themostcommonsourceofleaveningwastoretainapieceofdoughfromthepreviousdaytouseasaformofsourdoughstarter.[8]

In1961theChorleywoodbreadprocesswasdeveloped,whichusedtheintensemechanicalworkingofdoughtodramaticallyreducethefermentationperiodandthetimetakentoproducealoaf.Theprocess,whosehighenergymixingallowsfortheuseoflowerproteingrain,isnowwidelyusedaroundtheworldinlargefactories.Asaresult,breadcanbeproducedveryquicklyandatlowcoststothemanufacturerandtheconsumer.Howevertherehasbeensomecriticismoftheeffectonnutritionalvalue.[9]

Recently,domesticbreadmachinesthatautomatetheprocessofmakingbreadhavebecomepopular.

Types

BreadisthestaplefoodoftheMiddleEast,NorthAfrica,Europe,andinEuropeanderivedculturessuchasthoseintheAmericas,Australia,andSouthernAfrica,incontrasttoEastAsiawherericeisthestaple.Breadisusuallymadefromawheatflourdoughthatisculturedwithyeast,allowedtorise,andfinallybakedinanoven.Owingtoitshighlevelsofgluten(whichgivethedoughsponginessandelasticity),commonwheat(alsoknownasbreadwheat)isthemostcommongrainusedforthepreparationofbread.

Breadisalsomadefromtheflourofotherwheatspecies(includingdurum,speltandemmer),rye,barley,maize(corn),andoats,usually,butnotalways,incombinationwithwheatflour.Speltbread(Dinkelbrot)continuestobewidelyconsumedinGermany,andemmerbreadwasastaplefoodinancientEgypt.CanadianbreadisknownforitsheartierconsistencyduetohighproteinlevelsinCanadianflour.

PitaisanancientsemileavenedbreadwidespreadintheMiddleEast,LevantandSouthEasternEurope.Whitebreadismadefromflourcontainingonlythecentralcoreofthegrain(endosperm).Brownbreadismadewithendospermand10%bran.Itcanalsorefertowhitebreadwithaddedcoloring(oftencaramel)tomakeitbrownthisiscommonlylabeledinAmericaaswheatbread(asopposedtowholewheatbread).[10]Wholemealbreadcontainsthewholeofthewheatgrain(endosperm,bran,andgerm).Itisalsoreferredtoas"wholegrain"or"wholewheatbread",especiallyinNorthAmerica.Wheatgermbreadhasaddedwheatgermforflavoring.Wholegrainbreadcanrefertothesameaswholemealbread,ortowhitebreadwithaddedwholegrainstoincreaseitsfibrecontent,asin"60%wholegrainbread".

RotiisawholewheatbasedbreadeateninSouthAsia.Chapattiisatypeofroti.Naanisaleavenedequivalenttothese.Granarybread(aregisteredtrademark,ownedbyRankHovis[11])ismadefromflakedwheatgrainsandwhiteorbrownflour.Thestandardmaltingprocessismodifiedtomaximisethemaltoseorsugarcontentbutminimiseresidualalphaamylasecontent.OtherflavorcomponentsareimpartedfrompartialfermentationduetotheparticularmaltingprocessusedandtoMaillardreactionsonflakingandtoasting.Ryebreadismadewithflourfromryegrainofvaryinglevels.Itishigherinfiberthanmanycommontypesofbreadandisoftendarkerincolorandstrongerinflavor.ItispopularinScandinavia,Germany,Finland,theBalticStates,andRussia.

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Abakerpreparesyeasteddinnerrolls.

Stepsinbreadmaking.ThisshowsanunleavenedChileantortilla.

Unleavenedbreadormatzo,usedfortheJewishfeastofPassover,doesnotincludeyeast,soitdoesnotrise.Sourdoughbreadismadewithastarter.Flatbreadisoftensimple,madewithflour,water,andsalt,andthenformedintoflatteneddoughmostareunleavened,madewithoutyeastorsourdoughculture,thoughsomearemadewithyeast.Crispbreadisaflatanddrytypeofbreadorcracker,containingmostlyryeflour.Hempbreadincludesstronglyflavoredhempflourorseeds.HemphasbeenusedforthousandsofyearsintraditionalChinesemedicine.[12]Hempflouristhebyproductfrompressingtheoilfromtheseedsandmillingtheresidue.Itisperishableandstoresbestinthefreezer.Hempdoughwon'triseduetoitslackofgluten,andforthatreasonitisbestmixedwithotherflours.A5:1ratioofwheattohempflourproducesahearty,nutritiousloafhighinproteinandessentialfattyacids.[13]Hempseedshavearelativelyhighoilcontentof2535%,andcanbeaddedatarateupto15%ofthewheatflour.Theoil'somega6toomega3ratioliesintherangeof2:1to3:1,whichisconsideredidealforhumannutrition.[14]Quickbreadsusuallyreferstoabreadchemicallyleavened,usuallywithbothbakingpowderandbakingsoda,andabalanceofacidicingredientsandalkalineingredients.Examplesincludepancakesandwaffles,muffinsandcarrotcake,Bostonbrownbread,andzucchiniandbananabread.Glutenfreebreadshavebeencreatedinrecentyearsduetothediscoverythatceliacdiseasesufferersbenefitfromaglutenfreediet.Glutenfreebreadismadewithgroundfloursfromavarietyofmaterialssuchasalmonds,rice(ricebread),sorghum(sorghumbread),corn(cornbread),orlegumessuchasbeans(beanbread),butsincetheseflourslackglutenitcanbedifficultforthemtoretaintheirshapeastheyriseandtheymaybeless"fluffy".Additivessuchasxanthumgum,guargum,hydroxypropylmethylcellulose(HPMC),cornstarch,oreggsareusedtocompensateforthelackofgluten.

Preparation

Doughsareusuallybaked,butinsomecuisinesbreadsaresteamed(e.g.,mantou),fried(e.g.,puri),orbakedonanunoiledfryingpan(e.g.,tortillas).Itmaybeleavenedorunleavened(e.g.matzo).Salt,fatandleaveningagentssuchasyeastandbakingsodaarecommoningredients,thoughbreadmaycontainotheringredients,suchasmilk,egg,sugar,spice,fruit(suchasraisins),vegetables(suchasonion),nuts(suchaswalnuts)orseeds(suchaspoppy).Referredtocolloquiallyasthe"staffoflife",breadhasbeenpreparedforatleast30,000years.Thedevelopmentofleavenedbreadcanprobablyalsobetracedtoprehistorictimes.Sometimes,thewordbreadreferstoasweetenedloafcake,oftencontainingappealingingredientslikedriedfruit,chocolatechips,nutsorspices,suchaspumpkinbread,bananabreadorgingerbread.

Freshbreadisprizedforitstaste,aroma,quality,appearanceandtexture.Retainingitsfreshnessisimportanttokeepitappetizing.Breadthathasstiffenedordriedpastitsprimeissaidtobestale.Modernbreadissometimeswrappedinpaperorplasticfilmorstoredinacontainersuchasabreadboxtoreducedrying.Breadthatiskeptinwarm,moistenvironmentsispronetothegrowthofmold.Breadkeptatlowtemperatures,inarefrigeratorforexample,willdevelopmoldgrowthmoreslowlythanbreadkeptatroomtemperature,butwillturnstalequicklyduetoretrogradation.

Thesoft,innerpartofbreadisknowntobakersandotherculinaryprofessionalsasthecrumb,whichisnottobeconfusedwithsmallbitsofbreadthatoftenfalloff,calledcrumbs.Theouterhardportionofbreadiscalledthecrust.Thecrumb'stextureisgreatlydeterminedbythequalityoftheporesinthebread.

Formulation

Professionalbakerrecipesarestatedusinganotationcalledbaker'spercentage.Theamountofflourisdenotedtobe100%,andtheamountsoftheotheringredientsareexpressedasapercentageofthatamountbyweight.Measurementbyweightismoreaccurateandconsistentthanmeasurementbyvolume,particularlyfordryingredients.

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AdoughtroughonceusedforleaveningbreadfromAberdourCastle,Fife,Scotland.

Theproportionofwatertoflouristhemostimportantmeasurementinabreadrecipe,asitaffectstextureandcrumbthemost.HardUSwheatfloursabsorbabout62%water,whilesofterwheatfloursabsorbabout56%.[15]Commontablebreadsmadefromthesedoughsresultinafinelytextured,lightbread.Mostartisanbreadformulascontainanywherefrom60to75%water.Inyeastbreads,thehigherwaterpercentagesresultinmoreCO2bubblesandacoarserbreadcrumb.Onepound(450g)offlourwillyieldastandardloafofbreadortwoFrenchloaves.

Calciumpropionateiscommonlyaddedbycommercialbakeriestoretardthegrowthofmolds.

Flour

Flourisaproductmadefromgrainthathasbeengroundtoapowderyconsistency.Flourprovidestheprimarystructuretothefinalbakedbread.Whilewheatflourismostcommonlyusedforbreads,floursmadefromrye,barley,maize,andothergrainsarealsocommonlyavailable.Eachofthesegrainsprovidesthestarchandproteinneededtoformbread.

Theproteincontentoftheflouristhebestindicatorofthequalityofthebreaddoughandthefinishedbread.Whilebreadcanbemadefromallpurposewheatflour,aspecialtybreadflour,containingmoreprotein(1214%),isrecommendedforhighqualitybread.Ifoneusesaflourwithalowerproteincontent(911%)toproducebread,ashortermixingtimewillberequiredtodevelopglutenstrengthproperly.Anextendedmixingtimeleadstooxidizationofthedough,whichgivesthefinishedproductawhitercrumb,insteadofthecreamcolorpreferredbymostartisanbakers.[16]

Wheatflour,inadditiontoitsstarch,containsthreewatersolubleproteingroups(albumin,globulin,andproteoses)andtwowaterinsolubleproteingroups(gluteninandgliadin).Whenflourismixedwithwater,thewatersolubleproteinsdissolve,leavingthegluteninandgliadintoformthestructureoftheresultingbread.Whenrelativelydrydoughisworkedbykneading,orwetdoughisallowedtoriseforalongtime(seenokneadbread),thegluteninformsstrandsoflong,thin,chainlikemolecules,whiletheshortergliadinformsbridgesbetweenthestrandsofglutenin.Theresultingnetworksofstrandsproducedbythesetwoproteinsareknownasgluten.Glutendevelopmentimprovesifthedoughisallowedtoautolyse.

Liquids

Water,orsomeotherliquid,isusedtoformtheflourintoapasteordough.Theweightofliquidrequiredvariesbetweenrecipes,butaratioof3partsliquidto5partsflouriscommonforyeastbreads.[17]Recipesthatusesteamastheprimaryleaveningmethodmayhavealiquidcontentinexcessof1partliquidto1partflour.Insteadofwater,othertypesofliquids,suchasdairyproducts,fruitjuices,orbeer,maybeusedtheycontributeadditionalsweeteners,fats,orleaveningcomponents,aswellaswater.

Leavening

Leaveningistheprocessofaddinggastoadoughbeforeorduringbakingtoproducealighter,moreeasilychewedbread.MostbreadconsumedintheWestisleavened.UnleavenedbreadshavesymbolicimportanceinJudaismandChristianity:JewsconsumeunleavenedbreadcalledmatzoduringPassover,andRomanCatholicandsomeProtestantChristiansconsumeunleavenedbreadwhencelebratingtheEucharist,aritederivedfromthenarrativeoftheLastSupperwhenJesusbrokebreadwithhisdisciples,perhapsduringaPassoverSeder.Incontrast,OrthodoxChristiansalwaysuseleavenedbreadduringtheirliturgy.

Chemicalleavening

Asimpletechniqueforleaveningbreadistheuseofgasproducingchemicals.Therearetwocommonmethods.Thefirstistousebakingpowderoraselfrisingflourthatincludesbakingpowder.Thesecondistoincludeanacidicingredientsuchasbuttermilkandaddbakingsodathereactionoftheacidwiththesodaproducesgas.

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Ablockofcompressedfreshyeastinitswrapper

Chemicallyleavenedbreadsarecalledquickbreadsandsodabreads.Thismethodiscommonlyusedtomakemuffins,pancakes,Americanstylebiscuits,andquickbreadssuchasbananabread.

Yeast

Manybreadsareleavenedbyyeast.TheyeastmostcommonlyusedforleaveningbreadisSaccharomycescerevisiae,thesamespeciesusedforbrewingalcoholicbeverages.Thisyeastfermentssomeofthecarbohydratesintheflour,includinganysugar,producingcarbondioxide.MostbakersintheU.S.leaventheirdoughwithcommerciallyproducedbaker'syeast.Baker'syeasthastheadvantageofproducinguniform,quick,andreliableresults,becauseitisobtainedfromapureculture.Manyartisanbakersproducetheirownyeastbypreparingagrowthculturethattheythenuseinthemakingofbread.Whenthiscultureiskeptintherightconditions,itwillcontinuetogrowandprovideleaveningformanyyears.

Boththebaker'syeastandthesourdoughmethodsofbakingbreadfollowthesamepattern.Waterismixedwithflour,saltandtheleaveningagent(baker'syeastorsourdoughstarter).Otheradditions(spices,herbs,fats,seeds,fruit,etc.)arenotneededtobakebread,butareoftenused.Themixeddoughisthenallowedtoriseoneormoretimes(alongerrisingtimeresultsinmoreflavor,sobakersoften"punchdown"thedoughandletitriseagain),thenloavesareformed,and(afteranoptionalfinalrisingtime)thebreadisbakedinanoven.

Manybreadsaremadefroma"straightdough",whichmeansthatalloftheingredientsarecombinedinonestep,andthedoughisbakedaftertherisingtimeothersaremadefroma"preferment"inwhichtheleaveningagentiscombinedwithsomeoftheflourandwateradayorsoaheadofbakingandallowedtofermentovernight.Onthedayofthebaking,therestoftheingredientsareadded,andprocesscontinuesaswithstraightdough.Thisproducesamoreflavorfulbreadwithbettertexture.

Manybakersseethestartermethodasacompromisebetweenthehighlyreliableresultsofbaker'syeastandtheflavorandcomplexityofalongerfermentation.Italsoallowsthebakertouseonlyaminimalamountofbaker'syeast,whichwasscarceandexpensivewhenitfirstbecameavailable.Mostyeastedprefermentsfallintooneofthreecategories:"poolish"or"pouliche",aloosetexturedmixturecomposedofroughlyequalamountsofflourandwater(byweight)"biga",astiffmixturewithahigherproportionofflourand"ptefermente",whichissimplyaportionofdoughreservedfromapreviousbatch.Sourdough(alsoknownas"levain"or"naturalleaven")takestheprefermentmethodastepfurther,mixingflourandwatertoallownaturallyoccurringyeastandbacteriatopropagate(usuallySaccharomycesexiguus,whichismoreacidtolerantthanS.cerevisiaeandvariousspeciesofLactobacillus).

Doughbeforefirstrising. Doughafterfirstrising. Doughafterproofingintin,readytobake.

Sourdough

Sourdoughisatypeofbreadproducedbyalongfermentationofdoughusingnaturallyoccurringyeastsandlactobacilli.Incomparisonwithbreadsmadewithcultivatedyeast,itusuallyhasamildlysourtastebecauseofthelacticacidproducedbythelactobacilli.

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Sourdoughloaves

Sourdoughbreadsaremadewithasourdoughstarter(whichdiffersfromstartersmadewithbaker'syeast).Thestartercultivatesyeastandlactobacilliinamixtureofflourandwater,makinguseofthemicroorganismsalreadypresentonflouritdoesnotneedanyaddedyeast.Astartermaybemaintainedindefinitelybyregularadditionsofflourandwater.Somebakershavestartersseveralgenerationsold,whicharesaidtohaveaspecialtasteortexture.Itispossibletoobtainexistingstarterculturestobeginanewone.

Atonetime,allyeastleavenedbreadsweresourdoughs.Theleaveningprocesswasnotunderstooduntilthe19thcentury,whenyeastwasfirstidentified.Sincethen,strainsofSaccaromycescerevisiaehavebeenbredfortheirreliabilityandspeedofleaveningandsoldas"baker'syeast".Baker'syeastwasadoptedforthesimpicityandflexibilityitintroducedtobreadmaking,obviatingthelengthycultivationofasourdoughstarter.WhilesourdoughbreadssurvivedinsomepartsofEurope,throughoutmostoftheU.S.,theywerereplacedbybaker'syeast.Recentlytherehasbeenarevivalofsourdoughbreadinartisanbakeries.

Thereareotherwaysofsourdoughbakingandculturemaintenance.AmoretraditionaloneistheprocessthatwasfollowedbypeasantfamiliesthroughoutEuropeinpastcenturies.Thefamily(usuallythewomanwasinchargeofbreadmaking)wouldbakeonafixedschedule,perhapsonceaweek.Thestarterwassavedfromthepreviousweek'sdough.Thestarterwasmixedwiththenewingredients,thedoughwaslefttorise,andthenapieceofitwassaved(tobethestarterfornextweek'sbread).Therestwasformedintoloavesthatweremarkedwiththefamilysign(thisiswheretoday'sdecorativeslashingofbreadloavesoriginatesfrom)andtakentothecommunaloventobake.Thesecommunalovenswithtimeevolvedintothemodernbakery.

Steam

Therapidexpansionofsteamproducedduringbakingleavensthebread,whichisassimpleasitisunpredictable.Thebestknownsteamleavenedbreadisthepopover.Steamleaveningisunpredictablesincethesteamisnotproduceduntilthebreadisbaked.

Steamleaveninghappensregardlessoftherisingagents(bakingsoda,yeast,bakingpowder,sourdough,beateneggwhites,etc.).

Theleaveningagenteithercontainsairbubblesorgeneratescarbondioxide.Theheatvaporisesthewaterfromtheinnersurfaceofthebubbleswithinthedough.Thesteamexpandsandmakesthebreadrise.

Thisisthemainfactorintheriseofbreadonceithasbeenputintheoven.[18]CO2generation,onitsown,istoosmalltoaccountfortherise.Heatkillsbacteriaoryeastatanearlystage,sotheCO2generationisstopped.

Bacteria

Saltrisingbreademploysaformofbacterialleaveningthatdoesnotrequireyeast.Althoughtheleaveningactionisnotalwaysconsistent,andrequirescloseattentiontotheincubatingconditions,thisbreadismakingacomebackduetoitsuniquecheeselikeflavorandfinetexture.[19]

Aeration

Aeratedbreadisleavenedbycarbondioxidebeingforcedintodoughunderpressure.Fromthemid19thto20thcenturiesbreadmadethiswaywassomewhatpopularintheUnitedKingdom,madebytheAeratedBreadCompanyandsoldinitshighstreettearooms.Thecompanywasfoundedin1862,andceasedindependentoperationsin1955.Whileithadsomedevotedadherents,itnevereclipsedtheuseofbaker'syeastworldwide.

ThePressureVacuummixerwaslaterdevelopedbytheFlourMillingandBakingResearchAssociationatChorleywood.Withtheapplicationofbothpressureandvacuumatdifferentpointsinthemixingprocess,thismixernotonlymanipulatesthegasbubblesize,itmayalsomanipulatethecompositionofgasesinthedoughviathegas

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Salmoncreamcheesesandwiches

appliedtotheheadspace.[20]

Fatsorshortenings

Fats,suchasbutter,vegetableoils,lard,orthatcontainedineggs,affectthedevelopmentofgluteninbreadsbycoatingandlubricatingtheindividualstrandsofprotein.Theyalsohelptoholdthestructuretogether.Iftoomuchfatisincludedinabreaddough,thelubricationeffectwillcausetheproteinstructurestodivide.Afatcontentofapproximately3%byweightistheconcentrationthatwillproducethegreatestleaveningaction.[21]Inadditiontotheireffectsonleavening,fatsalsoservetotenderizebreadsandpreservefreshness.

Breadimprovers

Breadimproversanddoughconditionersareoftenusedinproducingcommercialbreadstoreducethetimeneededforrisingandtoimprovetextureandvolume.Chemicalsubstancescommonlyusedasbreadimproversincludeascorbicacid,hydrochloride,sodiummetabisulfate,ammoniumchloride,variousphosphates,amylase,andprotease.

Saltisoneofthemostcommonadditivesusedinproduction.Inadditiontoenhancingflavorandrestrictingyeastactivity,saltaffectsthecrumbandtheoveralltexturebystabilizingandstrengthening[22]thegluten.Someartisanbakersareforegoingearlyadditionofsalttothedough,andarewaitinguntilaftera20minute"rest".Thisisknownasanautolyse[23]andisdonewithbothrefinedandwholegrainflours.

Properties

Chemicalcomposition

Inwheat,phenoliccompoundsaremainlyfoundinhullsintheformofinsolubleboundferulicacidwhereitisrelevanttowheatresistancetofungaldiseases.[24]

Ryebreadcontainsphenolicacidsandferulicaciddehydrodimers.[25]

Threenaturalphenolicglucosides,secoisolariciresinoldiglucoside,pcoumaricacidglucosideandferulicacidglucoside,canbefoundincommercialbreadscontainingflaxseed.[26]

Servingandconsumption

Breadcanbeservedatmanytemperaturesoncebaked,itcansubsequentlybetoasted.Itismostcommonlyeatenwiththehands,eitherbyitselforasacarrierforotherfoods.Breadcanbedippedintoliquidssuchasgravy,oliveoil,orsoupitcanbetoppedwithvarioussweetandsavoryspreads,orusedtomakesandwichescontainingmyriadvarietiesofmeats,cheeses,vegetables,andcondiments.

Breadmayalsobeusedasaningredientinotherculinarypreparations,suchastheuseofbreadcrumbstoprovidecrunchycrustsorthickensauces,sweetorsavourybreadpuddings,orasabindingagentinsausagesandothergroundmeatproducts.

Nutritionalsignificance

Nutritionally,breadisknownasanamplesourceforthegrainscategoryofnutrition.Servingsizeofbreadisstandardthroughounces,countingonesliceofbread(whiteprocessedbread)as1oz.Also,breadisconsideredagoodsourceofcarbohydratesthroughthewholegrains,nutrientssuchasmagnesium,iron,selenium,Bvitamins,anddietaryfiber.Aspartofthe2010DietaryGuidelinesforAmericans,[27]itisrecommendedtomakeatleasthalfoftherecommendedtotalgrainintakeaswholegrainsandtooverallincreasewholegrainsintake.

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Darksproutedbread

Shelflife

In2009,anaturalpreservativeforextendingtheshelflifeofbreadforuptotwoweeks(asopposedtoafewdays)hadbeenpatentedandlicensedtoPuratos,aBelgiumbasedbakingingredientscompanythatsuppliestomorethan100countries.ThebreakthroughwaspioneeredbyProfElkeArendtattheUniversityCollegeCork(UCC)byincorporatingintothebreadalacticacidbacteriastrainwhichalso"producesafinecrumbtexture"and"improvestheflavour,volumeandnutritionalvalueofthefoodaswell."Priortothis,"About20%ofallbreadisthrownoutduetoshelflifeissues."[28]

Crust

Thebreadcrustisformedfromsurfacedoughduringthecookingprocess.ItishardenedandbrownedthroughtheMaillardreactionusingthesugarsandaminoacidsandtheintenseheatatthebreadsurface.Thenatureofabread'scrustdiffersdependingonthetypeofbreadandthewayitisbaked.Commercialbreadisbakedusingjetsthatdirectsteamtowardthebreadtohelpproduceadesirablecrust.

Thecrustofmostbreadsislesssoft,andmorecomplexlyandintenselyflavored,thantherest,andjudgmentsvaryamongindividualsandculturesastowhetheritisthereforethelesspalatableorthemoreflavorfulpartofaparticularstyleofbread.Somemanufacturers,includingasofSeptember2009SaraLee,markettraditionalandcrustlessbreads.

Thefirstandlastslicesofaloaf(oraslicewithahighratioofcrustareatovolumecomparedtoothersofthesameloaf)aresometimesreferredtoastheheelorthecrustoftheloaf.[29]

Oldwivestalessuggestthateatingthebreadcrustmakesaperson'shaircurlier.Additionally,thecrustisrumoredtobehealthierthantherest.Somestudieshaveshownthatthisistrueasthecrusthasmoredietaryfiberandantioxidants,notablypronyllysine.[30][31]Thepronyllysinefoundinbreadcrustisbeingresearchedforitspotentialcolorectalcancerinhibitoryproperties.[32][33]

Culturalsignificance

BreadhasasignificancebeyondmerenutritioninmanyculturesintheWestandNearandMiddleEastbecauseofitshistoryandcontemporaryimportance.BreadisalsosignificantinChristianityasoneoftheelements(alongsidewine)oftheEucharistseesacramentalbread.ThewordcompanioncomesfromLatincom"with"+panis"bread".[34]

Thepoliticalsignificanceofbreadisconsiderable.In19thcenturyBritain,theinflatedpriceofbreadduetotheCornLawscausedmajorpoliticalandsocialdivisions,andwascentraltodebatesoverfreetradeversusprotectionism.TheAssizeofBreadandAleinthe13thcenturydemonstratedtheimportanceofbreadinmedievaltimesbysettingheavypunishmentsforshortchangingbakers,andbreadappearedintheMagnaCartaahalfcenturyearlier.

Likeotherfoods,choosingthe"right"kindofbreadisusedasatypeofsocialsignalling,toletothersknow,forexample,thatthepersonbuyingexpensivebreadisfinanciallysecure,orthepersonbuyingwhatevertypeofbreadthatthecurrentfashionsdeemmosthealthfulisahealthconsciousconsumer.[35]

...breadhasbecomeanarticleoffoodofthefirstnecessityandproperlyso,foritconstitutesofitselfacompletelifesustainer,thegluten,starch,andsugar,whichitcontains,representsazotisedandhydrocarbonatednutrients,andcombiningthesustainingpowersoftheanimalandvegetablekingdomsinoneproduct.MrsBeeton(1861)[36]

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Frenchbread

Arabianpitabread

Asasimple,cheap,andadaptabletypeoffood,breadisoftenusedasasynecdocheforfoodingeneralinsomelanguagesanddialects,suchasGreekandPunjabi.Therearemanyvariationsonthebasicrecipeofbreadworldwide,includingpizza,chapatis,tortillas,bocadillo,baguettes,brioche,pitas,lavash,biscuits,pretzels,naan,bagels,puris,andmanyothers.Therearedifferenttypesoftraditional"cheesebreads"inmanycountries,includingBrazil,Colombia,Italy,andRussia.

Europe

AnenormousvarietyofbreadisavailableacrossEurope.Germanylaysclaimtoover1300basicvarietiesofbreads,rolls,andpastries,aswellashavingthelargestconsumptionofbreadpercapitaworldwide,followedbyChile.[37][38][39][40]BreadandsaltisawelcomegreetingceremonyinmanycentralandeasternEuropeancultures.Duringimportantoccasionswhenguestsarrive,theyareofferedaloafofbreadwithasaltholdertorepresenthospitality.[41]

ThereisawidevarietyoftraditionalbreadsinGreatBritain,oftenbakedinarectangulartin.Roundloavesarealsoproduced,suchastheNorthEastEnglandspecialitycalledastottiecake.Acottageloafismadeoftwoballsofdough,oneontopoftheother,toformafigureofeightshape.Acobisasmallroundloaf.Therearemanyvariationsonbreadrolls,suchasbaps,barms,breadcakesandsoon.TheChorleywoodprocessformassproducingbreadwasdevelopedinEnglandinthe1960sbeforespreadingworldwide.MassproducedslicedwhitebreadbrandssuchasWonderloafandMother'sPridehavebeencriticizedongroundsofpoornutritionalvalueandtasteoftheloavesproduced.[42]

InSpain,breadiscalledpan.ThetraditionalSpanishpanisalongloafofbread,similartotheFrenchbaguettebutwider.Onecanbuyitfreshlymadeeverymorninginthetraditionalbakeries,wherethereisalargeassortmentofbread.Asmallerversionisknownasbocadillo,aniconicpieceoftheHispaniccuisine.InSpain,especiallyintheMediterraneanarea,therehavebeenguildsofbakersforover750years.ThebakersguildinBarcelonawasfoundedin1200AD.[43]ThereisaregioncalledTierradelPan("LandoftheBread"),locatedintheprovinceofZamora,whereeconomywasinthepastjoinedtothisactivity.

InFrance,therehasbeenahugedeclineinthebaguetteculture.Inthe1970s,Frenchpeoplewereconsuminganaverageofoneloafofbreadperday.Onlyacenturyago,theFrenchateapproximately3loavesofbreadperday.Today,Frenchpeopleeatonlyahalfaloafofbreadperday.Inresponsetothisdecline,bakershavecreatedanationalcampaigntogetpeopletocallatthebakerybeforeandafterworkjustastheyusedto.ThecampaignmodelstheAmerican"GotMilk?"campaign,plastering"Heythere,haveyoupickedupthebread?"alloverbillboardsandbreadbags.[44]

LatinAmerica

InMexico,breadiscalledpan.AlthoughcorntortillasarethestaplebreadinmostofMexico,breadrollsinmanyvarietiesareanimportantdailyfoodforcitydwellers.PopularbreadsinMexicoincludethebolillorollandpandulce.Pandulce,whichisSpanishfor"sweetbread",iseatenintheeveningswithhotdrinksliketraditionalhotchocolate.

InPeru,panhasmanyvariationsduetothediversityofPeruviancuisine.Peopleusuallyeatpandepisoandpanserrano.TherearealsosomekindsofbreadmadeofpotatoesthesearecurrentlypopularintheAndes.Bizcochosaresweetbreadusuallyeatenwithsomebutterandhotchocolate.Adoughmadewithcookedpumpkinorsquash,oftenshapedandfriedintodoughnutsandservedwithasweetfruitydippingsauce,isatraditionalfavorite.Breadisaningredientofsopasdeajo,gazpacho,andsalmorejo.

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Mantou

Cornbread

NorthAfrica

Alsoconsumedisathickandchewyfriedbreadthatissmotheredinoilbeforehand.TherghifabreadisastapleinthefoodofMoroccoandconsistsofseverallayersoflightlycookedbread.

InEthiopiaineastNorthAfrica,abreadcalledinjeraismadefromagraincalledteff.[45]Thisisawide,flat,circularbreadthatisinasimilarshapeofatortillaandisalsousedasautensiltopickupfood.

Asia

ThetraditionalbreadinChinaismantou.Itismadebysteamingordeepfryingdoughmadefromwheatflour.InNorthernChinaandnortherncentralChina,mantouisofteneatenasanalternativestapletorice.SteamedmantouissimilartoWesternwhitebread,butsinceitisnotbakeditdoesnothaveabrownoutercrust.Mantouthathaveafillingsuchasmeatorvegetables(chasiubao,forexample)arecalledbaozi.ThekompyangofFuzhouisanexampleofaChinesebreadbakedinaclayoven.

InSouthAsia(includingIndia,Pakistan,andtheMiddleEast),rotiorchapati,typesofunleavenedflatbreadsusuallymadefromwholewheatflourorsometimesrefinedwheatflourandbakedonahotirongriddlecalledatava,formthemainstayofthepeople'sdiet.Rotisandnaansareusuallyservedwithcurrythroughouttheregion.Avariantcalledmakkidirotiusesmaizeflourratherthanwhiteflour.Anothervariantispuri,athinflatbreadthatisfriedratherthanbakedandpuffsupwhilecooked.Parathaisanothervariationonroti.Naan(leavenedwholewheatbread)isbakedinatandoororclayovenandisrarelypreparedathome.Whiteandbrownbreadsarealsoverycommon,butnotascommonasroti.

InthePhilippines,pandesal(orpandesal,meaningbreadofsaltorsaltbread)isaroundedbreadusuallyeatenbyFilipinosduringbreakfast.ThePhilippinesalsoproducesacheapgenericwhitebreadcalledPinoyTasty.[46][47]

TheMiracleChapatiasitbecameknownisanunleavenedbreadwithalongtradition.ThebreadcanbespelledChapati,Chapatti,Chappati,orChapathi.[48]

NorthAmerica

TraditionalbreadsintheUnitedStatesincludecornbreadsandvariousquickbreads,suchasbiscuits.Cornbreadismadefromcornmealandcandiffersignificantlyintasteandtexturefromregiontoregion.Ingeneral,theSouthpreferswhitecornmealwithlittletonowheatflourorsweetenersadded.Itistraditionallybakedinacastironskilletandideallyhasacrunchyoutsideandmoistinside.TheNorthusuallyprefersyellowcornmealwithsometimesasmuchashalfwheatflourinitscomposition,aswellassugar,honey,ormaplesyrup.Thisresultsinabreadthatissofterandsweeterthanitssoutherncounterpart.WheatflourwasnotavailabletotheaverageNorthAmericanfamilyuntiltheearly1900swhenanewbreedofwheattermedMarquiswasproduced.ThiswasahybridofRedFifeandHardredwinterwheat.MarquisgrewwellandsoonaverageAmericanswereabletohavehomemadewheatbreadonthetable.[49]HomemadewheatbreadsaremadeinarectangulartinsimilartothoseintheUnitedKingdom.

Rolls,madefromwheatflourandyeast,areanotherpopularandtraditionalbread,eatenwiththedinnermeal.Sourdoughbiscuitsaretraditional"cowboyfood"intheWest.TheSanFranciscoBayAreaisknownforitscrustysourdough.Spoonbread,alsocalledbatterbreadoreggbread,ismadeofcornmealwithorwithoutaddedriceandhominy,andismixedwithmilk,eggs,shorteningandleaveningtosuchaconsistencythatitmustbeservedfromthebakingdishwithaspoon.ThisispopularchieflyintheSouth.

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TheEucharist(alsocalledHolyCommunionortheLordsSupper)isconsideredasacrament,ordinance,orequivalentinmostChristiandenominations.

Upuntilthe20thcentury(andevenlaterincertainregions),anyflourotherthancornmealwasconsideredaluxurythiswouldexplainthegreatervarietyincornbreadtypescomparedtothatofwheatbreads.Intermsofcommercialmanufacture,themostpopularbreadhasbeenasofttexturedtypewithathincrustthatisusuallymadewithmilkandisslightlysweetthisisthetypethatisgenerallysoldreadyslicedinpackages.Itisusuallyeatenwiththecrust,butsomeeatersorpreparersmayremovethecrustduetoapersonalpreferenceorstyleofserving,aswithfingersandwichesservedwithafternoontea.Someofthesoftestbread,includingWonderBread,isreferredtoas"balloonbread".

Thoughwhite"sandwichbread"isthemostpopular,Americansaretrendingtowardmoreartisanalbreads.DifferentregionsofthecountryfeaturecertainethnicbreadvarietiesincludingtheFrenchbaguette,theAshkenaziJewishbagel,scali(anItalianstylebreadmadeinNewEngland),NativeAmericanfrybread(aproductofhardship,developedduringtheIndianresettlementsofthe19thcentury),andJewishrye,abreadcommonlyassociatedwithdelicatessencuisine.

Religioussignificance

AbrahamicReligions

DuringtheJewishfestivalofPassover,onlyunleavenedbreadiseaten,incommemorationoftheflightfromslaveryinEgypt.TheIsraelitesdidnothaveenoughtimetoallowtheirbreadtorise,andsoateonlyunleavenedbread(matzoh).[50]

IntheChristianritualoftheEucharist,breadsymbolicallyrepresentsthebodyofChrist,andiseatenasasacrament.[51]Specificaspectsoftheritualitself,includingthecompositionofthebread,varyfromdenominationtodenomination.ThedifferencesinthepracticeoftheEuchariststemfromdifferentdescriptionsanddepictionsoftheLastSupperwhichprovidesthescripturalbasisfortheEucharist.[52]TheSynopticGospelspresenttheLastSupperasaPassovermealandsuggestthatthebreadattheLastSupperwouldbeunleavened.HoweverinthechronologyinGospelofJohn,theLastSupperoccurredthedaybeforePassoversuggestingthatthebreadwouldbeleavened.Despitethispointofdisagreement,theCouncilofFlorenceoftheCatholicchurchagreedthatthebodyofChrististrulyconfectedinbothunleavenedandleavenedwheatbread,andpriestsshouldconfectthebodyofChristineither.[53]

Paganism

SometraditionsofWiccaandNeoPaganismconsumebreadaspartoftheirreligiousrituals,attachingvariedsymbolismtotheact.[54]

Antibreadmovements

Althougheatenbynearlyallpeople,somehaverejectedbreadentirelyorrejectedtypesofbreadthattheyconsiderunhealthy.Reasonsfordoingsohavevariedthroughhistory:wholegrainbreadhasbeencriticizedasbeingunrefined,andwhitebreadasbeingunhealthfullyprocessedhomemadebreadhasbeendeemedunsanitary,andfactorymadebreadregardedwithsuspicionforbeingadulterated.[35]Amylophobia,literally"fearofstarch",wasamovementintheUSduringthe1920sand1930s.[35]

IntheUnitedStates,breadsalesfellby11.3%between2008and2013.ThisstatisticmightreflectachangeinthetypesoffoodfromwhichAmericansaregettingtheircarbohydrates,butthetrendsareunclearbecauseofdifferencesbetweenthemarketsfordifferentclassesofbreadproducts.[55]Itisalsopossiblethatchangingdietfashionsaffectedthedecreaseinbreadsalesduringthatperiod.[56]

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InMedicine

TheancientEgyptiansusedmoldybreadtotreatinfectionsthatarosefromdirtinburnwounds.[57]

Seealso

BreadclipCulinaryartsListofbrandnamebreadsListofbreads

ListofAmericanbreadsListoffoods

Breadmakingingredients,techniquesandtools

Culinaryuses

Typesofbreads

BakerpercentageBaker'syeastBreadmachineBreadpanQuickbreadSlicedbread

BreadBowlBreadcrumbsBreadingCroutonsMelbatoastSopStuffingToast

AnadamabreadBarleybreadBeerbreadBiscuitBreadrollBriocheBroaBrownbreadBunBushbreadCanadianWhiteCardamombreadChallahChapatiCornbreadCottageloafDamperFlatbreadFocacciaHorsebreadIndianbreadIrishsodabreadKa'ak

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References

LavashMantouMatzoMelonpanMonkeybreadNaanPandoroParathaPashtiPitaPortuguesesweetbreadPotatobreadProjaPumpernickelPuriRicebreadRotiRyebreadSeedcakesTexastoastTigerbreadTortillaWhitebreadWholewheatbreadZopf

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21. Young,LindaCauvain,StanleyP.(2007).TechnologyofBreadmaking(http://books.google.com/books?id=HXtJivmeDfcC&pg=PA54).Berlin:Springer.p.54.ISBN0387385630.

22. Silverton,Nancy(1996)BreadsFromTheLaBreaBakery,Villard,ISBN067940907623. Reinhart,Peter(2001)TheBreadBaker'sApprentice:MasteringtheArtofExtraordinaryBread,TenSpeedPress,ISBN

158008268824. Gelinas,PierreMcKinnon,CaroleM.(2006)."Effectofwheatvariety,farmingsite,andbreadbakingontotalphenolics".

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26. Strands,C.KamalEldin,A.Andersson,R.man,P.(2008)."Phenolicglucosidesinbreadcontainingflaxseed".FoodChemistry110(4):997.doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.088(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodchem.2008.02.088).

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29. Vaux,Bert."DialectSurvey:Whatdoyoucalltheendofaloafofbread?"(http://www4.uwm.edu/FLL/linguistics/dialect/staticmaps/q_111.html).Retrieved2March2013.

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31. Hofmann,TLindenmeier,MSomoza,V(2005)."PronylLysineANovelProteinModificationinBreadCrustMelanoidinsShowinginVitroAntioxidativeandPhaseI/IIEnzymeModulatingActivity".AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences1043:887.Bibcode:2005NYASA1043..887H(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005NYASA1043..887H).doi:10.1196/annals.1333.101(https://dx.doi.org/10.1196%2Fannals.1333.101).

32. Panneerselvam,JAranganathan,SNalini,N(2009)."Inhibitoryeffectofbreadcrustantioxidantpronyllysineontwodifferentcategoriesofcolonicpremalignantlesionsinducedby1,2dimethylhydrazine".Europeanjournalofcancerprevention:theofficialjournaloftheEuropeanCancerPreventionOrganisation(ECP)18(4):291302.doi:10.1097/CEJ.0b013e32832945a6(https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FCEJ.0b013e32832945a6).PMID19417676(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19417676).

33. Panneerselvam,JayabalAranganathan,SelvarajNalini,Namasivayam(2009)."Inhibitoryeffectofbreadcrustantioxidantpronyllysineontwodifferentcategoriesofcolonicpremalignantlesionsinducedby1,2dimethylhydrazine".EuropeanJournalofCancerPrevention18(4):291302.doi:10.1097/CEJ.0b013e32832945a6(https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FCEJ.0b013e32832945a6).PMID19417676(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19417676).

34. "companion"(http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=companion&allowed_in_frame=0).OnlineEtymologyDictionary.

35. Copeland,Libby(6April2012)"WhiteBreadKills:Ahistoryofanationalparanoia."(http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2012/04/a_review_of_white_bread_a_new_book_about_our_nation_s_fear_of_flour_.single.html)Slate

36. Beeton,Mrs(1861).MrsBeeton'sBookofHouseholdManagement(Facsimileedition,1968ed.).London:S.O.Beeton,18BouverieSt.E.C.p.832.ISBN0224614738.

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Furtherreading

37. "Bread,whichisloved,byourneighbors"(http://grazione.ru/eng/novosti/~shownews/Breadbyourneighbors).grazione.ru.6July2012.

38. "ElTamiz:Bread,cheesecakeandabitofvariety"(http://foodychile.com/2012/02/14/eltamizbreadcheesecakeandabitofvariety).foodychile.com.14February2012.Retrieved19December2012.

39. "BreadMakestheWorldGoRound"(http://web.archive.org/web/20130114151325/http://www.sixservings.org/2010/10/breadmakestheworldgoround/).sixservings.org.15October2010.

40. "ChileanBread"(http://fundi2.com/2011/07/chileanbread).fundi2.com.6July2011.41. Kamala."BreadandSaltCeremonyinEurope"(http://www.cookatease.com/breadandsaltceremonyineurope).42. Chorleywood,theBreadthatChangedBritain(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine13670278).BBC.co.uk(7June

2011).Retrieved21March2013.43. Lahistopadelpan

(http://web.archive.org/web/20070629204630/http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/averroes/vertie/motivadores/histopan.htm).Juntadeandalucia.es.Retrieved21March2013.

44. Mondieu!NewcampaignurgesFrenchtoeatmorebreadTODAY.com(http://www.today.com/news/mondieunewcampaignurgesfrencheatmorebread6C10855685)

45. EthiopianInjeraRecipe|Exploratorium(http://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/recipeinjera.html).Exploratorium.edu.Retrieved21March2013.

46. "PinoyTastyarrives"(http://www.abscbnnews.com/lifestyle/10/06/10/pinoytastyarrives).ABSCBNNewsandCurrentAffairs.6October2010.Retrieved15March2011.

47. "PinoyTasty,genericbread,debutsatP36perloaf"(http://www.gmanews.tv/story/202660/pinoytastygenericbreaddebutsatp36perloaf).GMANewsandPublicAffairs.5October2010.Retrieved15March2011.

48. Flourrelatedtraditionsandquotes(http://www.fabflour.co.uk/fabflour/traditions/).fabflour.co.uk49. Katz,Solomon.CharlesScribner'sSons,(Vol3ed.).NewYork:Gale.p.531.50. ThoughtForFood:AnOverviewoftheSeder(http://www.askmoses.com/article.html?h=107&o=60495).Farbrengen

Magazine51. Eucharist(Christianity)EncyclopediaBritannica(http://www.britannica.com/eb/article9033174/Eucharist)52. WalterHazen(1September2002).InsideChristianity(http://books.google.com/books?id=edXChxGzxgoC&pg=PA34).

LorenzEducationalPress.Retrieved3April2012."TheAnglicanChurchinEnglandusesthetermHolyCommunion.IntheRomanCatholicChurch,bothtermsareused.MostProtestantchurchesrefertothesacramentsimplyascommunionorTheLord'sSupper.CommunionreenactstheLastSupperthatJesusatewithHisdisciplesbeforeHewasarrestedandcrucified."

53. Albury,W.R.Weisz,G.M.(2009)."DepictingtheBreadoftheLastSupper"(http://moses.creighton.edu/jrs/2009/20091.pdf)(PDF).JournalofReligionandSociety11:117.

54. Sabrina,Lady(2006).ExploringWicca:TheBeliefs,Rites,andRitualsoftheWiccanReligion(http://books.google.com/books?id=ZeRKlCbOdnIC&pg=PA100).CareerPress.pp.100.ISBN9781564148841.

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Kaplan,StevenLaurence:GoodBreadisBack:AContemporaryHistoryofFrenchBread,theWayItIsMade,andthePeopleWhoMakeIt.Durham/London:DukeUniversityPress,2006.ISBN9780822338338Jacob,HeinrichEduard:SixThousandYearsofBread.ItsHolyandUnholyHistory.GardenCity/NewYork:Doubleday,DoranandComp.,1944.New1997:NewYork:Lyons&Burford,Publishers(ForewordbyLynnAlley),ISBN1558215751&ltSpiekermann,Uwe:BrownBreadforVictory:GermanandBritishWholemealPoliticsintheInterWarPeriod,in:Trentmann,FrankandJust,Flemming(ed.):FoodandConflictinEuropeintheAgeoftheTwoWorldWars.Basingstoke/NewYork:Palgrave,2006,pp.143171,ISBN1403986843Cunningham,Marion(1990).TheFannieFarmercookbook.illustratedbyLaurenJarrett(13thed.).NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.ISBN0394567889.Trager,James(1995).Thefoodchronology:afoodlover'scompendiumofeventsandanecdotesfromprehistorytothepresent.HenryHolt.ISBN0805033890.Davidson,Alan(1999).TheOxfordCompaniontoFood.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0192115790.D.Samuel(2000)."Brewingandbaking".AncientEgyptianmaterialsandtechnology.Eds:P.T.Nicholson&I.Shaw.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.537576.ISBN0521452570.

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I.Shaw.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.537576.ISBN0521452570.Pyler,E.J.(1988).BakingScience&Technology3rdEd.vols.I&II.SoslandPublishingCompany.ISBN1882005023.