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BiochemistryCarbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life
Carbon Compounds and Life
Aside from water, living organisms consist mostly of carbon-based compounds
Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules
A compound containing carbon is said to be an organic compound
Carbohydrates – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Lipids – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Proteins – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur in trace amounts
Nucleic acids – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
These molecules are often called macromolecules
Four Main Groups of Organic Molecules
Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms
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Hydrogen
(valence 1)
Carbon
(valence 4)Nitrogen
(valence 3)Oxygen
(valence 2)
The electron configuration of carbon gives it covalent compatibility with
many different elements
Molecular Diversity Arising from Variation in Carbon Skeletons
Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules
Carbon chains vary in length and shape
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Organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen
Organic molecules contain hydrocarbon components
Undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy
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Hydrocarbons
Butane
Functional Groups
Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions
The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
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Chemical Group
Hydroxyl group ( OH)
Compound Name Examples
Alcohol
Ketone
Aldehyde
Methylated
compound
Organic
phosphate
Thiol
Amine
Carboxylic acid,
or organic acid
Ethanol
Acetone Propanal
Acetic acid
Glycine
Cysteine
Glycerol
phosphate
5-Methyl cytosine
Amino group ( NH2)
Carboxyl group ( COOH)
Sulfhydryl group ( SH)
Phosphate group ( OPO32–)
Methyl group ( CH3)
Carbonyl group ( C O)
This Organic Molecule is Super Special
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
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Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Unlinked monomerShort polymer
Longer polymer
Dehydration Reaction: Synthesizing a Polymer
Dehydration removesa water molecule,forming a new bond.
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Hydrolysis: Breaking Down a Polymer
Hydrolysis addsa water molecule,breaking a bond.
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars
The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or simple sugars
Carbohydrate macromolecules are called polysaccharides
Carbohydrate polymers may be linear or branched
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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
1–2glycosidic
linkage
Glucose
Sucrose
Fructose
Glycosidic Linkage
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Linear and Ring Forms of Glucose
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Polysaccharides
Storage
• Starch (Amylose):plants
• Glycogen: animals, liver and muscle cells
• Both are stored sugars for later use
Structural
• Cellulose: plant cell walls
• Chitin: exoskeletons of arthropods, fungi cell walls
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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Starch granules
in a potato tuber cell
Cellulose microfibrils
in a plant cell wall
Glycogen granules
in muscle
tissue
Cellulose
moleculesHydrogen bonds
between —OH groups
(not shown) attached to
carbons 3 and 6
Starch (amylose)
Glycogen
Cellulose
Glucose
monomer
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(c) Cellulose: 1–4 linkage of glucose monomers
(b) Starch: 1–4 linkage of glucose monomers
(a) and glucose ring structures
Glucose Glucose
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Lipids
Lipids
Lipids do not form true polymers and are hydrophobic
The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids
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Fat molecule: Triglyceride
Glycerol
Fatty acid
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Saturated and Unsaturated Fats
• Differences in saturation determine the structure and function of lipids
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Saturated Fats
• Fatty acid chains contain carbon-to-carbon single covalent bonds
• Solid at room temperature
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Unsaturated Fats
• Fatty acid chains contain at least one carbon-to-carbon double covalent bond
• Liquid at room temperature
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Phospholipids
• Composed of two fatty acid chains and a single phosphate group attached to a glycerolmolecule
• Major component of all cell membranes
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Phospholipids
Steroids
Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
Cholesterol, an important steroid, is a component of animal cell membranes
Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease
Steroid hormones include estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol
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Steroid Molecule
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Cholesterol
• Cholesterol helps the lipid bilayer stay fluid in different environmental conditions
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Proteins
Proteins
Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells
Protein functions include defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, and structural support
The properties of the amino acids of a protein determine how the protein will fold into its functional 3-dimensional structure
Protein shape determines function
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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protein Monomer: Amino Acid
• Amino acids have directionality, with an amino (NH2) terminus and a carboxyl (COOH) terminus
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New peptide
bond forming
Peptide bond
Side
chains
Back-
bone
Amino end Carboxyl endPeptide
bond
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Amino Acids to Polypeptides
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Amino acids are grouped according to the properties of their side chains (R group)
Hydrophobic (Nonpolar Side Chains)
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Amino acids are grouped according to the properties of their side chains (R group)
Hydrophilic (Polar Side Chains)
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Amino acids are grouped according to the properties of their side chains (R group)
Ionic (Electrically Charged Side Chains)
Negative Positive
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Protein Folding
• The interactions of the R groups of amino acids determine the structure and function of that region of the protein
• Proteins have primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures
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Protein Structure
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Hydrogen
bond
Disulfide
bridge
Polypeptide
backbone
Hydrophobicinteractions andvan der Waalsinteractions
Ionic bond
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Enzymatic: Accelerate chemical reactions
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Defense: Protect against disease
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Storage: Store amino acids
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Transport: Transport molecules across cell membrane and within living organisms
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Hormonal: Coordination of an organism’s functions, regulate body processes
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Receptor: Response of cell to chemical stimuli
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Contractile: Movement within cells and cell parts
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Structural: Support
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Misfolded Proteins May Cause Disease
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Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids
There are two types of nucleic acids
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
DNA provides directions for its own replication
DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis
Nucleotide Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids
Consist of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group
Nucleotides are joined together by covalent bonds
Polymer: Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids have a linear sequence of nucleotides that have ends, defined by the 3' hydroxyl and 5‘ phosphates of the sugar in the nucleotide
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Purines and Pyrimidines
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Nucleotide Pairing
• Purines pair with pyrimidines
• Number of hydrogen bonds differs between each pairing
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Directionality influences structure and function of polymers
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Structural Similarities and Differences
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