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Learning Outcomes1. Demonstrate the use of inspection, palpation,
percussion, and auscultation during a physical examination.
2. Discuss appropriate infection control measures used to prevent spread of infection.
3. Know key terms.
Key Terms Auscultation
Bell
Diaphragm
Doppler
Inspection
Nosocomial infection
Ophthalmoscope
Otoscope
Palpation
Percussion
Standard precautions
Stethoscope
Transmission-based precautions
Skills for Physical Examination
Inspection: what you see. Observe your patient in a systematic, deliberate manner.
Always comes first. Starts with the general survey. Need good lighting & adequate exposure of
patient. Assess for symmetry between right & left sides of
the body. May need certain instruments:
Otoscope: shines light into the ear canal & on to the tympanic membrane
Ophthalmoscope: illuminates the internal eye structures.
Skills for Physical Examination (cont’d)
Palpation: what you feel with your fingertips & hands (e.g., temperature, moisture, swelling, pulsation, rigidity, crepitation, presence of lumps, presence of pain or tenderness).
Use dorsa (back) of hands & fingers to assess skin temperature (skin is thinner than on palms)
Use finger tips to assess skin texture, swelling, pulsation, presence of lumps
Identify tender areas, palpate these areas last Start with light palpation to, progress to deep palpation if
necessary for organs or mass deeper within a body cavity (e.g., lower abdominal area)
Skills for Physical Examination (cont’d)
Percussion: tapping the patient’s skin with short, sharp strokes to assess underlying structures. Used most frequently to assess the thorax & abdomen.
Direct percussion: striking hand contacts the body (e.g., tapping the patient’s sinus areas)
Indirect percussion: most often used – striking hand contacts the stationary hand fixed on the patient’s skin (e.g., tapping the flank area to assess for kidney pain/tenderness)
Skills for Physical Examination (cont’d)
Auscultation: listening to sounds produced by the body (speech, difficult breathing, coughing) and by using a stethoscope (heart, lungs, blood vessels, abdomen)
Stethoscope: need quiet room; listen for the presence or absence of a sound & the quality of sound heard. Bell: best for soft, low-pitched sounds (e.g., heart
murmurs). Hold lightly against the skin. Diaphragm: used most often; best for high-pitched
sounds (e.g., respirations, bowel, normal heart sounds). Hold firmly against the skin.
Auscultation (cont’d)
Clean bell &/or diaphragm with alcohol between patients to avoid spreading germs.
Warm, quiet room.
Never listen through a gown – reach under the gown with your stethoscope to listen.
Once you know what normal sounds the body makes, you will then be able to identify abnormal sounds.
Infection Control Measures Have a “clean” area for unused equipment
& a “used/dirty” area for equipment after using it.
#1 WASH YOUR HANDS FOR 10-15 SEC Before & after physical contact with each patient In the patient’s presence After contact with body fluids (e.g., blood, wound
drainage, saliva, urine, stools). Wear gloves when potential exists for contact with body fluids.
After touching equipment contaminated with body fluids.
After removing gloves.
Standard Precautions
CDC establishes guidelines for decreasing transmission of bloodborne & other infections in the hospitals.
Standard Precautions (Table 8.2, p. 121)
Used with ALL patients regardless of their risk or infection status.
Designed to reduce the risk of transmission of germs from both known & unknown sources
Apply to: (1) blood; (2) all body fluids, secretions, & excretions (except sweat); (3) nonintact skin; & (4) mucous membranes.
Transmission-Based Precautions
Used for patients with proven or suspected transmissible infections.
Used in addition to Standard Precautions to stop transmission in hospitals
3 types: (may be used alone or in combination) Airborne (e.g., TB) Droplet (e.g., pneumonia) Contact (e.g., Herpes zoster lesions)
General Approach to PE
Start with nonthreatening actions (ht, wt, vital signs)
Use a head-to-toe approach
Explain each step & how the patient can help
Encourage the patient to ask questions
Arrange sequence of physical examination to allow as few position changes as possible.
Allow rest periods if needed.
When finished, ensure that patient is comfortable, bed is in low position, side rails are up, and call bell is within reach.
For patients in distress, focus on the body areas appropriate to the problem, collecting a mini-data base.
Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss the 4 areas of a general survey and changes in the aging adult.
2. Assess height, weight and BMI of an adult client and document.
3. Assess and interpret vital signs and oxygen saturation of an adult client and document.
4. Relate factors, risk factors, and lifestyle modifications that affect blood pressure.
5. Discuss key terms.
Key Terms
Eupnea
Apnea
Bradypnea
Tachypnea
Cheyne-Stokes
Bradycardia
Tachycardia
Rate & rhythm
Pulse pressure
Stroke volume
Mean arterial pressure (MAP)
Systolic pressure
Diastolic pressure
Hypothermia
Hyperthermia
Sinus rhythm
Sinus arrhythmia
Hypertension
Orthostatic hypotension
Cardiac output
General Survey
Objective data of physical characteristics & overall impression of the client with first encounter
4 areas of the general survey include: Physical appearance: age, sex, LOC, skin color,
facial features & symmetry, any distress Body structure: stature (height), nutrition,
symmetry, posture, position, body build, contour Mobility: Gait, range of motion, involuntary
movement Behavior: Facial expression, mood & affect,
speech, dress, personal hygiene
Temperature
Regulated by hypothalamus
Stable temperature required for cellular metabolism
Oral mean temp: 98.6° F (37° C)
Oral normal range: 96.4° F-99.1° F
35.8° C-37.3° C
Rectal temp: 1° F higher (0.4°-0.5° C higher)
Axial temp: 1° F lower (0.4°-0.5° C lower)
Lower in older adults: mean 97.2° F (36.2° C)
Temperature (cont’d)
Oral temp: place thermometer at base of tongue in sublinguinal pockets; tell client to keep lips closed
Axillary temp: safe & accurate for infants & young children; clients who cannot close mouth
Rectal temp: use for comatose or confused patients when other routes are not practical – wear gloves & insert lubricated rectal probe about 1 inch (2-3cm) into the rectum
Tympanic membrane thermometer: senses body’s core temperature in the eardrum – safe, noninvasive, nontraumatic, quick, with minimal chance of cross-contamination between patients
Pulse Rate & Rhythm
Stroke volume (SV): amount of blood the left ventricle pumps into the aorta with each beat – average 70 mL
Pulse: pressure wave generated by each heart beat – rate & rhythm can be palpated in radial artery
If rhythm is regular, count # of beats starting with 0 for 30 sec. & multiply by 2 = heart rate
If rhythm is irregular (arrhythmia), count # of beats for 60 sec. to determine heart rate
Normal range: 50-90
Bradycardia: <50 bpm
Tachycardia: >90 bpm
Pulse Force & Elasticity
Stroke volume (SV) x Rate (R) = Cardiac output (CO) – amount of blood ejected every minute by the left ventricle into the aorta
Force of heart’s SV is measured by 3-point scale with peripheral pulses: 3+ = full, bounding 2+ = normal 1+ = weak, thready 0 = absent
Elasticity: condition of the artery – normally feels springy, resilient
Respirations
Normally regular & automatic
Normal range: 10-20 per minute
Count respirations discretely for 30 sec. if normal, 60 sec. if patient has breathing problems
Ratio of pulse to respirations: 4:1
Blood Pressure (BP)
Force of the blood ejected from left ventricle into the aorta -- normal range 90/60-120/80
Systolic BP: maximum pressure felt on the artery when the left ventricle is contracting (systole)
Diastolic BP: resting pressure that the blood exerts constantly between each contraction (diastole)
Pulse pressure: difference between systolic & diastolic BPs
Mean arterial pressure (MAP): average pressure reached inside the arteries; usually ranges between 77-97 mmHg. Calculate: (DP x 2) + SP / 3
5 Factors Determining BP
Cardiac output (C): increased CO = higher BP; decreased CO = lower BP
Peripheral vascular resistance: vasoconstriction = smaller arteries & more resistance = higher BP; vasodilatation = larger arteries & less resistance = lower BP
Circulating blood volume: increased blood volume (AKA fluid overload or hypervolemia) = higher BP; decreased blood volume (AKA fluid deficit, hypovolemia, dehydration) = lower BP
5 Factors Determining BP (cont’d)
Viscosity: thickness of blood (usually related to % of RBCs or hematocrit (HCT)) – thick blood = higher BP
Elasticity of blood vessel walls: stiff, noncompliant walls (e.g., arteriosclerosis) = increased resistance = higher BP
Assessment of BP
Measured with stethoscope & sphygmomanometer (BP cuff)
Width of cuff should equal 40% of circumference of arm; length should equal 80% of circumference
Cuff too narrow = falsely high BP
Cuff too large = falsely low BP
Allow 5 minutes to rest before assessing BP
For complete physical exam, assess BP in both arms
If 2 BP values are different, use the higher value
Use bell or diaphragm of stethoscope to assess BP
Assessing for Orthostatic (Postural) Hypotension
Drop in systolic BP of >20 mmHg or increased pulse of >20 bpm when changing from a lying or sitting position to standing position
Causes: peripheral vasodilatation w/o compensatory increased CO, prolonged bedrest, older age, hypovolemia, drugs to treat hypertension
Suspect with c/o dizziness on standing or fainting (syncope) – patients are at risk for falls
Assess BP & pulse in lying, sitting, & standing positions – record BP using even numbers
General Survey, Measurement, & Vital Signs in the Aging Adult
General survey: sharper body contour, flexion of the spine, wider stance, shorter steps
Measurement: decreased body wt d/t shrinking of muscles & loss of subcutaneous fat; fat is redistributed to abdomen & hips; height decreases d/t shortening of spinal column; kyphosis & flexion in hips & knees
Vital signs: less likely to have fever; higher risk for hypothermia d/t loss of fat; pulse rate WNL, but may be irregular; rigid arterial walls d/t arteriosclerosis; decreased in vital capacity & more shallow respirations with increased respiratory rate; systolic BP increases but diastolic BP usually does not – leads to increased pulse pressure
Measurement of Oxygen Saturation
Pulse Oximeter: measures arterial oxygen saturation – amount of oxygen binding to hemoglobin molecules
Normal range: 95%-100%
Using a Doppler
Doppler ultrasound: used to detect blood flow through peripheral arteries
Used to detect sounds (BP) or peripheral pulses that are hard to hear or feel
Primary (Essential) Hypertension
High BP (>120/80) d/t unknown causes
95% of HTN (hypertension) cases is primary HTN
Prehypertension: 120-139/80-89
Stage 1 hypertension: 140-159/90-99
Stage 2 hypertension: >160/100
Risk Factors for HTN
Smoking
High cholesterol, high triglycerides
Diabetes mellitus
Age >60 years
Black adult & postmenopausal women
Family history of CV (cardiovascular) disease
Obesity
Stress
Strong emotions – fear, anger, pain which stimulates the sympathetic nervous system
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