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he Art o Logical hinking
iv
Copyright
YOGB y R L. C, H, MO 65672
© 2011 YOGB y R L. C
A d. E d ud 2011
isbn: 978‑1‑61183‑216‑7 (p)
isbn: 978‑1‑61183‑217‑4 (epb)
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v
Contents
C I..........................................................................................................R.
C II. .....................................................................T P O R.
C III. ................................................................................................ T C.
C IV................................................................................T U C.C V. ...............................................................................C d Im.
C VI. ..............................................................................................................m.
C VII. .........................................................................T M m.
C VIII................................................................................................... Judm.
C IX..................................................................................................P.
C X. ..............................................................................Immd R.
C XII. .......................................................................R y Idu.C XIII.....................................................................Ty Ad Hy.
C XIV....................................................M d Hy.
C XV. ............................................................................Ddu R.
C XVI. ...........................................................................................T Sym.
C XVII.......................................................................V O Sym.
C XVIII. .....................................................................R By Ay.
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1
The Art of Logical
Thinking
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3
Chapter I.
Reasoning.
“
R
easoning” is dfd : “T ,
x uy ; uy
my um; um,; ; du, du,
um.” S y: “T d reson m
m. I mm d u du
d y du u m
d, d m , d y d
m m m u d.”
By mym u md m j d md ,
u “ m” u d m
m mx d m
d d u. B y: “I
md; uy u
d thought‑knowedge , d m sense‑knowedge.
I my dd m m u; m m ud y …
du, d u ud u m d
y.” T ‑md uy dd: “I du
d, ides d thoughts. A ide m du
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he Art o Logical hinking
4
xd d d ;
thought m du m
m d. T d udd ; d d d. T u
;
u d y u. I
u, ts , mmd judm, d gener
truths ud ws d uses , dd m u ;
y u xioms , ‑d u, d
u dd m m y , d theorems.”I yu d ,
y mdd d y M’ y
x u
“d y y u
.” A J y m : “Ny‑
u udd m quy ud
y d , yz, m, m y d m f
d . I d y ,
y ud y , N! Ty ud y ;
I um dud
d . Y, y, y
mu .”
S, yu d um yu d—
y uy yu y
, d yu mu : ‘T
qu. W y , quy
u mjy y. My
m d f, d
u d y. Sm md mjy y
, ud d d y
m m. T
y d d m, u
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Reasoning
5
u d d y
d m
u. T m m ud d u, d y y d y m m
uy. T m d d u
du xm, d y d my d
uy. Puy fd
d d fd d d
y muud. M y d m u
muud qu.I d y my y
d . A my ,
d m, d ymm mu, u
x d u d
d mu d u m d.
Ad, m y, m y
mu d u u d mu u m d. O
m y d d dd
d d um d.
O d d um
m quy uy, m d
d d,
m dud u m y uqu u.T u , ud
d u , u
y y m,
, d d xd . O
muu ud x,
d d d xd x “
my .” T u y u ud d.T, y ud u u
d y,
m ud y d u,
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6
d , ‑qud my,
ddd d m.
J y : “ d ,, m u d ; u
u , d u d,
d d, Ld B d, . A ,
m mm m
my. Y, d, m m
d d d my. T m
m md qu d, u y uu, u u ,
d m m , d d
m d md m. I u
u d m, y ud
dy m m m . I u
u u y d u m d d,
d u m d m. Bu d d d S. P my , d
, d u y u
y . Bu md’ y, d u
y , d d my md
. T d
xy m m. W
, I d, mu , u d u du d
d u, d d
y dy y d mu.”
I um u md
d y u u
md, , m m, dd u
d dm du. W d, m, d y u d
yy, d m dd
y u N Pyy. N m
m x‑ md, u
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Reasoning
7
j d m m uj
u md m
du du dm‑, u d udd udy
working prinipes L R.
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9
Chapter II.
The Process Of Reasoning.
T
he processes R my d m u
, :
I. Abstrtion , y m drwing o d setting side m j, , quit
or ttribute , d m d j u. F
, I ion quy strength , d m
quy y d ddy
m— m strength u m m
m, dd — I bstrted
quy; bstrtion ; d u‑d bstrt ide. Sm d
d , d “ m fm
y.” A B y: “T d, u my d
d m.” O u d A
u ttention d u u u
quy xu , d d.
x m d j udd. S Wm Hm y: “W
u m u md , m,
, fu, z, ., d m .
T my d Md A. T
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10
d md ddu j,
d quy u. T y
d z ; z dd dd , u; u
d z.”
II. Generiztion , y m
m C G Id. I d
d mm qu j, d
, d m d u m
oneption md d ud m . AG Id C d m u d
ud qu u d
u, d dy my d y
u ss. F , my
prtiur ide m prtiur ,
y u . H my G Id
horse , ss , d y horse u d y horse
udd . Te expression o Generiztion
or Coneption is ed Conept.
III. Judgment , y m m
j, , , d u
m dm. Tu my
m horse d nim , d m m m judm
: “A horse nim ;” m horse d ow , d
dm, m judm: “A horse
ow.” Te expression o judgment is ed Proposition.
IV. Resoning , y m m
j, , u
d j, . Tu my () mmm m; () mmm; () ,
thereore , m; u
m : “A m.” T m
udm , ,
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he Process O Reasoning
11
m j u u d y m
d j. Te ntur orm o expression o
this proess o Resoning is ed Sogism.I u
mym Ay d
Sy, y. Ay m j
u u , qu .
Sy m m qu,
j u m . T
ud R. A y y; Gz C y
y; Judm y y;
R “ y u Idu,
u u m Ddu.
T R; viz., (1) Idu
R, u m u
u; d (2) Ddu R, u u m u.
Indutive Resoning d y d u
m u u. F , m u u
ddu m d d u “A
m mu d;” m d
m mu, my “A
m mu.” Idu R dm known to the unknown. I y y
. I d m u .
Dedutive Resoning d y d u
u m u. Tu m d,
J Sm, m, mu d; , m
mu, u
ud d m mu.Ddu R y
y .
M y Idu R: “T du md
d
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u u
d. B xd uy
md, d y u B . … Idu, ,
y u u
, u m m
. I d, du
y ud u
ddu u ,
u m u m um m.”
Rd Ddu R, y: “Ddu
R y
y qu, strting rom dmitted or estbished
premises.” B y: “T u m
u dd m d u.
Sm u, xm mm .Sm m dd m du. … Sm m
my y, y
. My y d y
ud u ddu ;
y , y ; . R
m y u , L dd
d dd y um y.”
H u dd Idu d
Ddu R d : “M fd
u u x, , mjor
premises m u d u. By
du xm m u u um
ddu . W ud , xmd, wi obe the sme gener
ws. … T m, ‘A ud,’ d d
um d xmd. I
y y , ud x d
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he Process O Reasoning
13
ud. … A Idu fd m
d thus given us mjor premise , d dduy
y y m .”
T Ddu R
dd u d.
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15
Chapter III.
The Concept.
I
n consiering , mu y
u my xm
d u md m md . I u
y d u, d u
d d m d d ud
, u, y, y d d d
du d dd .
T f
d onept.A m y. P. Wm.
Jm y: “T u y m , dm,
d ud, d dy umy d uj
du d oneption ,” T f
, :
I. Presenttion. B my md mu
f m m md. I m , nim ,
mu f d m, y d
m—, d; , , , , , . W mu
d m m m
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my dud y mmy—d
md. I d my u nim
ud d y d m], ud m m u .
Ady y m u
y. T u
uy . I
u d m
d d u . Wu
mym , m y; d u
, m md m
d. A S Wm. Hm d: “A
, , m u y
y x u,
u qu y x . … A,
, u u , y md m
dy y. … I u
u .” Ad S B. Bd d: “I ,
mu m ,
u d x md
d ddu.” Ad D. B y: “T
y md y d d u .”
II. Comprison. F P
Cm. W u nim
um u‑, u d
m. W m ,
, m m u.
By du m d d. W m
d d d; m
m x; d d m
; d my m ,
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he Concept
17
. W u d
, m , d
y md d. T u ddu m , m
d d fd. T uy Cm d
du ; y d d yz,
y, m, . F y m y
dd “R y d y m u d
f u m; d
m u; d y uy ; x m, x,
xud, , x, .” P. Wm Jm y:
“Ay u d
y du, m ’ mzy d
d. Ad d du
m . B
m mu j d m u md , ud um, y
ud m.”
III. Abstrtion. F Cm
A. T m “A” ud yy
m: “T m umu
qu y j, u
m uj d . O, d u m um
j m u .
T A .” bstrt
“ .” I A u
d nims , zd u
d d m u
d ddu, d d m quy m, d, d , bstrt , d,
u quy d. I
d z m, quy
z m qu, d d m
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z . Tu d u d
z u m, y m dy. I
m y my quy , ,y, d quy
d f. I udy, xm d
qu u quy
m qu ;
qu u u u quy ud
d. I xm d um
, f qu possessed in ommon y um ; d d
qu not ommon m.
F ; d m,
md quy m‑ d u‑
d mm y um m;
u m m
Mrsupii , um d mm. I m yu u
m d, udd z d d, d
u d ud u y
m. L, my d
pent , d yu
u m m, d y m
œu ud. T m dud y quy ud P Mmm. T P
Mmm ddd u u, y A
qu m d, : T
Edentt , u, u , ‑,
md, .; Sireni , ‑md m d
m d “,” m
‑, m, du, .; Cete , my, u f‑ , y
mmm, yu y u
‑m, m , , d,
.; Ungut , d m, u ,
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he Concept
19
, , , mu, m,
d, , , .; Hroide ,
m d m d m, y ‑ xm;
Proboside , ud m, my d y
u m ; Crnivor , ‑,
d y u u‑m d ; Rodenti ,
; Insetivor , d; Cheiropter ,
f‑d; Lemuroide , mu,
my, u uy x; Primtes , ud my, , m‑,
, , mz, ‑u d M.
I yu
my ommon quit
f, d quy uj A
d u u m. Fu d
A dd u; , my Crnivor , ‑,
my ddd y u A ,
, , , d, , , d, . I
, mu f m m A
d m m d‑my; d ,
d m m ‑my.
H y A: “I A, d u y m m u d,
um m, d d y qu mm
. A
m qu xu .”
IV. Generiztion. A m A
Gz. Generiztion : “T
z m ; j m ud mm m, d
; xd m u ; du
u; u
d .” A B y:
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20
“T md, , m um d generize
d, y u m m d
m m .” Ud d A u A my
Gz u u m, d
u, u, u u‑m. F m
my d u‑m
md u ddu; d
m u. Gz y
Cf, m qu in ommon. T y
things in ertin generized ss must possess the prtiur
quit or propert ommon to the ss. Tu
m Crnivor mu ; d
Mmms m y d yu.
A H y: “W u j qu
genus , . W j , weknow tht ertin quities wi hve gener ppition to
them .”
V. Denomintion. F y u
Gz Cf, Dm.
By Denomintion m “ m d y
m.” A m ym y m
u y m d m mu u. O, my dd
be xd . A
ym, , b, , x , d , y u m
u y d dy, my u
d ym mu m dy ud y
d m m ymzd.
I mu u “horse” ud u df m, y
m u m d
. O, mu u
xm d.
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he Concept
21
A H y: “A d u m,
my u md u m u
d , d ud , my m u d d ,
md.” M y: “A m d ( d)
du u m u
m u d m
.” Sm d m ym our
ides o things , m;
d m ym m. I u m dd my u
m d udd d d y
u .
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23
Chapter IV.
The Use of Concepts.
H
aving observe ,
u d u d mu . A
f ud du mu ,u d y mmy
d .
F , d ,
d d y m “nim” . T m
y , u ymz y y
f z. Bu, d
m md d dd f z d m. , dy, “m”
d d , ,
my , d m ud d
nims m u m . L ,
m “m” d y d
u, m md d
u u. O, m d m, m u u. T d my
m “d” d m, d dy m
dog d qu d u
m. L, m m d y‑,
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m d d u “d” u
m y d. I u d m
qud my d u y “d” m m
uy udd d y
md. Tu m P.
I m y d m m u m
u “m” d d d , men
d‑d d ‑d. Su d ud y m
“m” u d qu ju md. A d, d u
F u m m Em ,
dumy, d‑d d , d Em
d d mu ; d E
u m m Fm my,
d Fm d qu. I m y my
Am yu Em y “D’yu ” d Em y ju: “Fy!”
A y Em m. I m y,
yu E , m d
uy, m m Am
‑d, ‑d d ‑d, y “W, I
;” “I ;” d “Du ;” y d m
m. T W m, d y E
d u W Bu, quy
mu. I m y, W
md B dy
d uu d d d uduy d
B d Em m.
H y: “A N d y d d quy white fmy mddd mn. H
dy f m, d ud
m m u ’ qu md
d d m . I
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he Use o Concepts
25
d ud Id Cm,
ud ud u . A x, d
m d , d quy drunkenness fmy fxd mn. A y , u
, trustworthiness m. A
y, u u m u
dd m dm u m , y
m ud u ud u
udd . H dy
y m d m d m , y udd
m dd m’ d. W md
m, y d md u. T m
dy d m d y d
y d mmdy d
. I mu md m u
uj du u ; f y md y y; x my u,
y m, y uy md,
d mu, md d
, quy mu ddd
y.”
L u d m d
m d u . W f, , ud m m
mu md. Ou d dd
d j, qu d . T
m j d
u . W m j
j d u md, m d d
d y d d f m jd d dm . T
j uy d, um
d j d d
. A d x d d,
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26
d j d d m m d mx.
T d’ y
mu m xd du. T y,
qu j d d m d. T
y . T
y, u m d
y m d y, d u m d
d j. I m
u qu dd y m d y, du m ud, m
y d u u
. Tu m f horse
m , f m
qu d m
; yz u qu ,
zd u m, u dd d u , qu d
; yz, d j u
d qu, m
the horse s he is , qu. O u,
d qu d ,
dd u yzd —u
horse d.O u u m d u
zd d u,
y d uu,
uy xd ddu. T
uu, md, uuy d d
u, x dy y
, udy, m uy d
uy y. S y d d dd
u , m u
dud uy u qu
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he Use o Concepts
27
, m y, d . Sm
md y mu d m,
ud m u f yzd md. O d m mu d
y, ud quy u d
d y m d m
qu j. T u m
d, m m
m my d y y
; m y m . I
d m d y u, u
qu my md.
A ,
md, md d y
qu mm. Ad, ,
d z m f, um qu . T d m
u z d f d d
d , ud m m md,
u fy m j j
d md u‑
. A B y: “Gz d .
T d dd ; dd ;
d d u d. W u u m
u ; m ; m
. B d u
j, m m d .
H md um , m m
dd ddu d z m . Wm m , d u
d u d , Being .
H d z, my dd
dd y u d.”
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he Art o Logical hinking
28
Fm z, y,
m u m u gener onepts. Sm
d u dud y m m “,” d m
“” . B y : “T
du z d d onepts. W
dy dud md m d
d u . … A
d. I
mm . I m m ddu m
. Tu my qudruped
u‑d m, u d d
y u m; my tringe m
, u d d y u
. T md f xy
y u j, u m my u. T my ud horse, bird, oor,
nim , .”
S my d d d
onept d ment imge. T d, d
onept nnot be imged , y du
. I m ud
d d udd d , d d u .
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29
Chapter V.
Concepts and Images.
A
s we d, md—
ud uj m m. T m
x ud umd d y md
dud m m m. Bu y
dx m qu m
d .
F , yu d nim.
Yu yu m yu y , nim. Yu
z m yu d yu udd m u d .
Bu yu m m m , nim.
Wy? Bu y m m yu m m ud
u some prtiur nim m
qu m. Yu d
d m u nims. Ad,
u, yu not piture o nthing tht tuexists u, u d m
qu m. I x— ym
m x, u .
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A B y: “A d y
m. T d m
u. I , z fxd y m, u u.” Ad H y: “I
m m y u m
ddu m. T m m df
u ud d m m. A m m
ud mn d u , d , y
y, d . T
ddu u mn ud dy . I m m , mu y, d,
, u , m
‑. A y d u ‘ppe’
md. H d u ‘ , d‑d,
d d, .’ T y ud
m dy, u m
y.”S m m mu u
u d ddu qu, d
m u u , onept d mu
y ss quities— , qu
. T d “
d … mm
.” Ad “ d” d ud. A u mu m u ,
m d u
. W my u mn , u u M
. A du
m thing , u y ide o ss o
things. W u ud d u
udd d, d .
Bu, ud my
m, u some prtiur representtive o
ss my d md m n ideized
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Concepts an Iages
31
objet , ,
m , d
zd. T dzd j,, —y perepts dud y
mmy. I m, , y
u y, y
dzd j. O, y d
m d d mm m.
A H y: “W ud dy
u , qu, m ddu . A m
x ddu. Wu
m ud d x d y d
. A m
df m j, fd ,
, y . … T , ,
m y d u ruit ; u d z ddu y d
m. A um md my
d u , d u d
, u
d m.”
I my ud xd d
d perept d onept. T d m y dd. A : “ j
; d.” A
: “ m .” B m
d: “A perept m du ;
onept m d mm u
. A perept m u j; onept
u, u . A perept dd yu; onept dd y y . T
m uuy d y m,
md, it n on be thought.” Tu m
perept u d; u
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32
u m y horse
m.
I d pereption d oneption , my d uj
ppereption , m d y my md y,
u dy d z y
m d u my . A my
dfd : “ md y m;
md y .” T d
d mdd zd— , pereivedin new sense , y uy qud d
md. H x : “
d dy .” I
ddu d quy ,
d quy , m
m y d m d. Bu ppereption
ddu d d y d ux d , mm d , d
um. F , m y y md
d d ‑y, mm. T
f ‑y , y ud: “T ud m
d m.” “Gd m, M. C,” d
y. T x m d: “T f .” “Gd
m, M. ,” d y. A d, “I ’ qu’ u .” “Gd m, M. Hu,”
d y.
T m d m y d “u.”
T u m . T
m u d , d
m . T m
m du . A j m ddd;
dy z, m uu f j
; m, m u. Ad
, d u u x
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Concepts an Iages
33
ddu. I m y
m my qu dy
. Ou , x, jud, ., u.
Ad , mu u onepts dmd
y y u m , u my y
u . W y y
u , u d d ud y
u u m d d. F fd
dy y m m dddu. Oy u md ud m u
.
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34
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35
Chapter VI.
Terms.
I
n logic d onept d term y d,
u u u m d
d. T d d, d m , d onept y d
ide md, d term y d word
m d — ym . I
u Dm, “
m d y m” f
m . Ad mjy
d u zd d d . A B y: “ ddu
u d m u ud m
d dd m; md ud m
md ud m. Ny dy
d u u u. T
ddu dud y u m, x
d , my . M j md y y mm u; y u x
; u dj d mm qu, d
u d d d qu. T
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he Art o Logical hinking
36
y d u, d m
d , d x d.”
I d term myd d n wordor words whih onstitute onept. T d onept
myd y subjet o thought , u
d ymz . T onept , uj
u, m m d term
d my ym x. I mu
mmd term d y u
d, my d myd d , mm u
ud y u term. F u
d uj d u ,
my : A term is the outwrd smbo o onept;
d : Te onept is the ide expressed b the term.
T Ddu L,
my: m, P d Sym. T, d m d
f Ddu L. U
udd m, x udd
ud Ddu R. A J y:
“W j m m P;
j P , m um
. … W ud y u u y m d y d
u . du d um
mu u y u,
u L m . Bu, d udd
m y, we ought rst to ern ext wht term
is, nd how mn kinds o terms there m be ; x
u d d d . Ad
my y d m d
um d ym.”
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ers
37
N, m ud ym
x , d m
j , u d d d d m, f dd
y u.
A term my y um u, u
dj my u u. Tu , “
u,” f m u “;”
d m dj “u.” Ad
, “T K Ed Em Id,” m, md u, “K Ed”
f m d “Em Id” d
m. T , “T y B Muum
d,” f
d u on two terms ; f m “T y
B Muum,” u, dj,
df d ; d m, “ d,”
u, dj, , d
. T u ud y J,
dd: “A m, , my y um
u, u dj, ,
d ju qud j m ; [ y
m u, m u j, , j.” (A u, : “
x m x, m
mm.”)
T f f m dd m
, viz. , (1) Su m; d (2) G m.
A Singur erm m d j,
. Au d y j, , my md d; my md
u d m, . T
Su m, u y m d u
j, : “Eu; M; S;
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38
S; f m; d; f u;
K Ed; B Muum; Cmm
Pu W; m Cy N Y.” I d xm , Su m
d u m, f , m
u , d uy
d dduy. A Hy y: “Oneness o kind
y d u Su m, u individuit ,
uy, ddu .”
A Gener erm m , m , d y ddu j, um
j, m d,
md u j m
d. F , “; m; d; mmm; ; fu;
d; m,” . Hy y, d G m:
“I m d m j, d
y m d. T m m d u .”
A f m dd m
, : (1) C m; d
(2) Du m. Hy y f: “T
d d u d
m d d m. I y d
d Su d G m, y du.”
A Coetive erm d
d j, m
m d, whih oetive whoe is onsidered s n individu ,
u md y ddu j,
. Tu m: “m;
; my; my; d; ; my; ;; ; m; ;” . C
m, u y d , m
, dd ddu.
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ers
39
A Distributive erm m d eh nd ever
individu objet, person or thing in given ss. F xm,
m: “m; qudud; d; mmm; ; dmd;.” A Hy y: “G m y du.”
A: “I m d
ss d oetive . … Ty ud
m d ss C m.”
A f m dd m
; (1) C m; d
(2) A m.A Conrete erm m d df j,
uj d x,
d my dd uy x y,
: ; m; mu; d; ; ; .,
u u d ud y u,
: “uu, , , uu, d,” .
A Abstrt erm m d u, quy y onsidered s prt rom the objet, person or thing
d x, : “uy;
dm; y; d; u,” . A
, qu x in themseves ,
u d u y
j, d . Tu “Buy,”
u my beutiu things ; “Vu,” u my uu , .
A ttribute or quit onrete xd
djetive ; d bstrt xd noun ; ,
“uu” d “uy,” y, “uu” d “u,”
y. T d my ummd u : A
C m the nme o thing or o quit o thing
expressed s n djetive nd s mere quit ; A m m quy , expressed s
noun nd s “thing” in itse .
C m my ud C m
A m, d u f y
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40
m Mixed erms , m: “m;
; y;” .
A f m dd m : (1) Positive erms ; d (2)
Negtive erms.
A Positive erm m d qu,
: “d, um, , qu, , ,” .
T m d quy dd y
m .
A Negtive erm m d quy, : “um, , u, u,
‑du,” . T m den
qu, sserting
quy. Ty y u d m.
J y: “W my uuy N m y
y u‑, ‑, ‑, ‑, ‑,
y d ‑.” Hy y: “T uu ym N m in, un, ess, dis, , n, nti, mis, d
mm de , d non d not.” J dd: “I E
u , y m u
N m xy d , dj
d u ud . Ju onvenient
inonvenient ; m, ‑m; , ; d ;
u ud , ‑u; y, y;, ‑. Bu my N m ud
dm ud, d m,
m m y u ‑, ‑,
P m. Ady, fd dy y
N m mu myd.”
T md uy y: “Smm m
d my m m d .T mu d undressed d ‑dd,
‘ d.’ B m
‘dd,’ u u d d m.”
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ers
41
Sm u u d u f,
, y Privtive erm ,
d qu d y j, , : “d, dd, d, d,” . Hy y
m “ P m d N m
m.” A y Nego‑positive
erm , d “ quy xd
m,” : d, um, u,
. T md dd y
m u “y ” dy df, d , P d N,
u u u ud.
T m j f y
md . ., d Innitted erm , d
m d y
y j, xd
d P m. T m d , d .
Exm m ud : “‑I, ‑m,
‑, um,” . Hy y m: “Ty
y, , zd y , u
u m y , fy
u d md.”
A f m dd m , : (1) Au m; d (2)
R m.
A Absoute erm m d qu
j, d dd u y
y j, : “m; ; ; u;” .
T m m be d my m, u not
neessri d y .A Retive erm m d neessr
m, : “; ; m; du;
; u; m; ;” . Tu m
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42
“d” x “,” vie vers. T
m m x d m.
Hy y f: “R mu u ddu
d m’ m, Au m
u y qu uj u
y d.”
Sm u y m higher nd ower ;
brod nd nrrow. T f m d
d x m. F , y, ddu u m
. T u , d
m. T m
, d . A d y
m broder m; d m
d m u, m m
nrrower . By m, broder m ud d higher term , d d
ower terms. Tu nim ud d d
m d, u ud . B
y: “S md y u mm
u ddu, u m u d
ddu. T u u d
ontent ; ddu m u extent.”Ady, u ud j
m d extension ; u ud
u qu d . I u
qu extension m,
intension ; intension , extension. W
udd m y d m
ddu d m, ommon qu ; d m mm ,
ddu. A B y: “T mn
m extension poet, ortor sttesmn , m
m ddu; d intension , mu y d
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43
d u , d m d
u m mm mn.” I m y
m nim qu xdd ud um ddu y d d d
d qu; , , m, d, y,
, , m, , . Ady
mu m ud y qu mm
m, y dd. T df
m m intension , : “ Anim. A
, u , y y, d uy m.”
A u df
nim : “ u , d, .”
H y: “ Anim y , y d
x. T qu mm m, u
um m. u m
m extension , ud m y m,m m u , m m
. W d x
m, horse , ddu , qu m
umu.”
T m m d d d
u, y d z d
d d m zd y u d y dd m u
u. A B y: “Gz
u: y m m
m m u. … Ny dy
d u u u. … T
z “ . Hd
m d, u jud udy y , d ud u
yd y d. Judm, x
m m, ud m; d du
m m ym ud
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44
ud. N u ud d m
u, u u m ; d u
du ddu ud .T f ud md; d d
ud d y d .”
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45
Chapter VII.
The Meaning of Terms.
E
ver ter mening , ontent , m u
. T d d m
md my ud, ym mening m, mening x y
md udd . udd
m m, u m
ud, u udd ud m
d d u u
ym u.
E m menings , (1) u , j m d;
d (2) qu, u j,
qu m d.
F , m book , f
m d
book , d d m
u qu m , d , d, m, , . N y
u book , u y
m m mu book. Ad ,
I book mu d qu.
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46
Ad, I m d qu u,
I mu book. A J y: “I y, y dy
m du m: m d, … m, y d y,
qu d u impied .
L y um m
extension m; um qu
u md intension.”
T x d m d
u . T f d extension m xd y
m, Genus d Speies , y. T f
intension m xd y m,
Dierene, Propert d Aident , y.
Genus m d: “ j
; m x ; u
d d .”Speies m d: “ m j
u, d m u md;
d x uj
y mm m x .”
A uy y: “T m speies d genus my
d m mm m my, ,
dd ddu, d ddu dd. Tu
ddu, G, M,
M ddu Am.” J y:
“I d m y
d , d dy
ddd m m , genus , d
m ddd, speies.” Anim genus mn speies ; mn , u, genus
Cusin speies ; d Cusin , u, m
genus Sortes m . T ud mu
d u ogi m m genus d
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he Meaning o ers
47
speies u m m Nu Hy. Eh
ss is “genus” to the ss beow it in extension; nd eh ss
is “speies” to the ss bove it in extension . A xm d inm speies ,
u uddd, “S”—
mu y ddu j,
. A xm
summum genus , u,
y, , ,
“, x, y, u, u, f, um,” . Hy y: “I y u summum
genus , my df um inme
speies. A md m xm
mm d subterns , ,
d y d.”
P f
intension m, fd:Dierene , m d: “T m m y
dud m u;
f .” Tu dierene
N d Cu; um
dierene d d qudud; m d
dierene d m
, . Hy y: “W du j m d dierenti. I m
dd mm qu d dm
ddu ud u.”
Propert , m d: “A u quy y;
uy y.”
Tu propert du m . Tu
propert N ; u propert qudud; m propert .
Tu dierene my y
.
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Aident , m d: “Ay quy um
my my , dy ;
, d y u j, .” A, , d ,
m d d —
ident . O, my d
, u mjy d—
d idents d
properties. Wy y: “ Aidents L
d— d . I ident u m, , ud
m u d ; , y,
Sd ident d m,
, , y dd,
.”
A m f m
m, fd md “Df.”Denition m d: “A x d
m.” I L m ud d y
properties d dierenes m y
d. T u d df. F
, d Re Denition , Wy
df : “A df x u
y u m.” T d PyDf, : “A df md y um u
uy , u u, m, .,
.” A Logi Denition , : “A df
u d d. Tu dfd ‘
d ,’ str u, d wndering u
d d dy .” A Aident
Denition : “A df ident qu .”A Essenti Denition : “ df properties
d dierenes j, .”
C dm Df d
Ex, : “A denition ;
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49
expntion m. T denition d df
m x f; u
u y d; expntion d myud df d u; m dm
m d ud d u
m y m; dm umd
du x.”
Hy x x
Logi Denition , m
m L. H :“T u u L Df :
1. A df ud u
dfd.
2. A df mu m d dfd.
O df d iruus in deniendo.
3. T df mu xy qu
dfd.4. A df ud xd u, fu,
muu u.
5. A df mu m.”
A df y qu m
Ay d Sy.
Ansis m d: “T y
u m, qu, d u.”I d y df j,
, f y yz d
d d d.
U qu, d u y d
uy d, y df j .
Snthesis m d: “T j u
m ; L: md y m, md u y.” I
df mu y j
u qu, d u,
dd y y; d yzd
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m, dd , df
j xd y m.
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51
Chapter VIII.
Judgments.
T
he irst
C m C. T d
Judm, m dm .
Judgment L dfd : “T m
md , d,
j , mx mx, d
u y d ,
m d . Judm
m .”W u md , y
m m , d u
u d m dm. T
m d d , L, d
Judgment.
I y Judm mu
xmd d md. T m mu d Judm d m dm. F
, , horse d nim. W
xm d m , d fd
m m. W fd
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52
horse udd nim d ,
: “Te horse is n nim.” T m
greement d , , Positive Judgment. W m horse d ow d fd dm
m, x m
Judm : “Te horse is not ow.” T Judm,
dm d Negtive Judgment.
I u m
horse d nim fd d
nim d f, horse , d ud . T m qu, y,
u, “ m .” W my, , ud
prt d d y:
“m m .” Smm
qu , : “M m.”
I Judm y y
P d N. W m horse d nim , mu y
dd is m, is not
m.
T m Judm y d
y H, : “W d , y
ud y u. Id m
uu . W m ‑d y, m . U judm
d d ddd y
u, m d d d. W
m d d m, u
d . I d d, ud
, ud d, ud
m d. A , u u ,d dy . T
y d d d
. u f, d d
, ‘D m d d. Yu mu
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Jgents
53
Amz.’ T y d jd
drinkbe ’ d. A m
d udum, muu m d u d, u
d d y judm. S d
d d mud;
d um dd; u d d
d judd d mud d
um. T mm md judm
m d d d u. … Judm uz d. T u
u u’ mx, d dud
m m d dud d uzd y
. … Fuy judm
y d m , ,
md dm; d uy d
u fd qu my d u u.”
Judm my y y ;
d my . W m
d , ,
y m. W m
, y. W
m qu x, y y. Tu m : “A
m,” judm y; m
: “m m ,” judm y;
m : “ m m,” judm
y y.
B y: “I judm y. A
judm u d d u y. T, , uf
. Su y m m y;
u‑ mm y,
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mm y d mm y
y.”
T m uy : “T md dd ogi judgment. Sy , , y
md md judgment.
dm d, , jud. Ey
d d judm
x. T md u jud;
jud. Even in orming the notions whih judgment ompres,
the mind judges. Ey m u judm m : m , m
mm u u m; d m
judm. I u u ‘Ey d
judm; y judm xdd .’ T d
judm, y m x
u, dm qu, du d
m , d primitive or pshoogi judgment.”I L Judm ; i.e. , Judm
y Ex d Judm y I. W m
horse d nim fd
horse d nim d judm
“ horse is n nim” my dd Judm
y Ex. I m m
horse the quit o nimit , d u quy horse , my y “the horse is n nim ,”
judm my dd Judm y I.
B y: “B Judm ; md
my judm y x y . T
md y x uuy m u.”
W Judm xd d d
P. T m u d m,m d Judm d d,
d m “” my y ud
d judm . Bu u
x d u y d :
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Jgents
55
“ A Proposition is Judgment expressed in words.” I x
, d P,
m xdd d uj Judm xd P, d m
d d . Ju uj
C d m y d , d
uj Judm d P. I
, , m m
d d x d. I
md.
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57
Chapter IX.
Propositions.
W
e have f Ddu R
C. T d
P.I L, Proposition : “A , ,
m dy m; md
x xdd qu d
mmd.” Hy df P : “y m
d m .”
Exmpes o Propositions ud :
“T ;” “ m;” “C y;” m m m
d; : “A z;” “ ;”
“ f;” ., d m
m.
T Prts o Proposition : (1) Subjet ,
m md dd; (2) Predite , the
something md dd d Subjet ;d (3) Copu ,
Suj d Pd.
I P: “M m,” m mn
Suj; m n nim Pd; d d is ,
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Cu. T Cu y m m to be ,
d, m P;
d m xd, P. T Cu y dy xd y
d is is not , ., u d xd m
m m. F , y “ u,”
m “ u.” I m y, my m
Pd m, : “Gd ,” y m”
Gd x.” I m , P d,
Pd f d, d Suj , :“Bd m;” “S u.” I u
judm mu ud dm m,
d d m m.
A Afrmtive Proposition Pd
frmed Suj. A Negtive Proposition
m Pd d Suj
denied. Exm .
A f P dd m
, (1) C; (2) Hy; (3)
Dju.
A Ctegori Proposition m
d md u quf,
: “M m;” “ ,” . T d my true , u m md y
m y.
A Hpotheti Proposition m
d md dd u d,
um u, : “I
‑, d;” “ d dm,
xd,” . J y: “Hy P myy zd y d ‘;’ u
duu y y d mu m dy
. … W my y y ‘ d,’
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Propositions
59
d ‘dm ud xd,’ u d u
d ‘.’”
A Disjuntive Proposition “my ,” d uuy ju “,”
mm “,” : “L
d;” “A ud d;” “A
u, d u.”
A f P dd m
: (1) U; (2) Pu.
A Univers Proposition whoe quntit Suj d d
Pd. F : “A m ,” y md
m y ,
some m u m x. I m y
P: “N m mm” U,
univers deni.
A Prtiur Proposition m d Pd y prt or portion
Suj, : “Some m ,”
“Some m ,” m
d d whoe Suj. O
xm : “A ew m,” .; “mn ,” .; “ertin
,” .; “most ,” .
Hy y: “T U P, my xd, , ever, eh, n, nd whoe d
qu m. T Pu P
dj quy, u some, ertin, ew,
mn, most u d t est prt .
T uj Du m P
dd y m y L, d Hy y:
“ mu m dm my, y, u d u
d y .” Sm u m,
“Quf m P,” u d
u m “Du.”
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he Art o Logical hinking
60
T df L m, “Du,” : “T
du u d ;
mym m u x; m u x, ud f
.” A m P distributed
myd u ; y, when it is empoed
so s to pp to eh nd ever objet, person or thing inuded
under it. Tu , “A m,”
m horses dud; d , “Sm
ud,” m horses dud. B xm du subjet
. Bu d my my
dud. F , , “A
m,” d, nims , dud,
, not used in its uest sense , nims horses—
some m d, ,
d, nims , ud u d “not distributed.” T y m: “A
some m.”
T mmd
d Du m P,
B x : “Du y
m x, u mm my
dmd y u. Tu y, ‘M m,’ m men , d m m dud. Bu y
‘B y y,’ m, ‘ ’ u
‘m .’ T test o distribution m
‘eh nd ever.’ Tu y ‘m m,’ u
d y m m.”
T Ru Du m P
:1. A universs du subjet.
2. A prtiurs d du subjet.
3. A negtives du predite.
4. A frmtives d du predite.
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Propositions
61
T u d u . T
f u qu u, uj
univers , whoe subjet d; uj prtiur on prt uj
d. I d u,
y negtive whoe o the predite mu
dd uj, , y: “Sm nims
not horses ,” horses u m
uj, d u distributed. I u u,
my dy m d is not denied uj, ,
y : “H m,” d m
the nims , u y my prt or portion
m—, d; nims ,
dud.
I dd m P
P Denitive or SubstitutivePropositions , Suj d Pd xy
x d . F , ,
“A tringe pogon o three sides” m
; , my uud .
H m “uu.” T m “df” m
m d
y dene . A df xd md m , u
uj d d y qu .
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he Art o Logical hinking
62
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63
Chapter X.
Immediate Reasoning.
I
n the Judm mu m
d m dm. I
R m md d m judm, u u m ddu
d judm.
T m m Immd
R, y m ddu
m impies . Sm dfd :
“resoning without midde term.” I m
on one proposition is required or the premise , d m m u ddud dy d u
y m y m .
T md myd m
R ; (1) O; (2) C.
Opposition x m
uj d d, u d quy quy,
T L O :I. (1) I u u, u u. (2) I
u , u . (3) I u ,
. (4) I u u, .
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64
II. (1) I u, . (2)
I , d. (3)
C u, u my .III. (1) I u‑ , u.
(2) I u‑ u, d
. (3) Su‑
, u my u.
IV. (1) I d u, .
(2) I d , u. (3)
Cd u , u y u d .
I d md , ud ud
mz m m, dd y
:
P
U
Pu
Am (A)
N (E)
Am (I)
N (O)
Exm : U Am (A): “A m
m;” U N (E): “N m m;” “Pu
Am (I): “Sm m m;” Pu N (O):
“Sm m m.”
T xm
ud y d d xm u :
(A) “A A B.”
(I) “Sm A B.”
(E) “N A B.”
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Ieiate Reasoning
65
(O) “Sm A B.”
T u m
, :A d E yd ontrries. I d O sub‑ontrries ; A
d I d E d O d subterns ; A d O d I
d E yd ontrditories.
A udy , d ym x
m, y m L
O d u ,
C m u .T , d Squ O,
myd y u
u :
D I C T O
R I E SC O
N T R A -
D I C T O
R I E S C
O N T R
A -
CONTRARIES
S U B A L T E R N S
SUB-CONTRARIES
S U B A L T E R N S
A E
I O
Conversion mmd y
m
d uj d uj
d; d d: Conversion
is the trnsposition o the subjet nd predite o proposition.A B : “P judm onverted
uj d d u m
u judm m
judm.” T , u m
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he Art o Logical hinking
66
C, d C;
d Cd.
T L C : “N m mu dud C dud Cd.” T
m u ud md
dd .
T d C; viz: (1) Sm C;
(2) C y Lm; (3) C y C.
I Simpe Conversion quy
quy. I Conversion b Limittion quy dm u u. I C y N
quy d u quy. R
f d ym d
, my d d
md C u d
; :
Te Univers Afrmtive (ym A) d y Lm, y quy m
u u. T d “dud”
d, mu du y
y “.” Tu mu ,
“ m m” (A), “m m m” (I).
Te Univers Negtive (ym E) d y Sm
C, quy quy. F m “E” dud, y my
dud u
. Tu “N m m” d : “N
m m.” “E” d “E.”
Te Prtiur Afrmtive (ym I) d y
Sm C quy
quy. F m dud “I,” m my dud , d mu
m “I.” F ; : “Sm m m”
d , “Sm m m.”
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Ieiate Reasoning
67
Te Prtiur Negtive (ym O) d y
C y N, quy d u
quy. Tu : “Smm m,” mu not y “m m
m,” d ud du men d,
dud d. Ad , we
trnser the negtive prtie rom the opu to the predite
d m “I” d y Sm
C. Tu “Sm m m”
“Sm m ‑m” m y (ym C) : “Sm ‑m
m.”
I ud, , d
Fudm L Tu d d y
u, :
Te Lw o Identit , : “T m quy
y m quy , m d d u.”
Te Lw o Contrdition , : “N
m m d d .”
Te Lw o Exuded Midde , : “Ey
mu ; mdd
u.”
O , P. J, d uy, y: “Sud dm f u m d m.
A um my xd ‑d
d; d mu y
y u
y.”
C XI.
Idu R.Idu R, d,
d u m u u,
m u . Tu, m x
ddu d d u u
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he Art o Logical hinking
68
d y m ud d
d , d m d, d ,
du u “A m mu d.” O, m x u d m
xd ujd , m
uj , d quy my y
du u : “A m xd
ujd .” I d u
d y y Idu R m
udm m Ddu R.A , , Idu d
Ddu R, y dd—
u .
J y Idu R: “I Ddu R
qu my u d m
d Pm, d u
d Cu. W y ud fdu y u, u
y wht propositions re true when other ones re true. A
y dd ud d dedutive
beuse we dedue, or ed down the truth rom premises to
onusion. I xdy m udd
ddu y, u m m
m m udd indutive inerene , y u m d
d ud u.” H y: “M
fd u u x, ,
mj m m u d u.
By du xm m u u um
ddu . W ud
, xmd, y m . … Oy d d,
j fd, mj m
md, ddu myd.”
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Ieiate Reasoning
69
S my , u my
d y m, d y
y y d y m Ddu R, y u Sym. T u
A d m d uu f
d md md Ddu R,
u y m Nu
, f d, d m
d. T md f md
, Idu I, d mu 1225–1300. R B f
mu f u y
d xm u j ud
d. H md my d y . H
y dd y G d m udd
y , d u my u
m d y u d .Ld F B, d u m m G,
d Novum Orgnum my x
d d Idu R d
f u. A J y: “Idu qu y
m u
m d d. Su d
du, du quy, d, uy d y d ,
u .”
T Four Steps in Indutive Resoning , d y J,
:
First Step.—Pmy .
Seond Step.—T m y.
Tird Step.—Ddu .Fourth Step.—Vf.
I Idu R
y sntheti proess , u
d m d u u u
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70
u md, m d
ud m . A B y: “T u ud
y md ; m u d d m uy
d u. Idu u u
m — y .” I
Idu R y
sending proess , u d m u
; u u u u; m
, d, m .
B y Idu R: “T du
ddu y . Idu d Ddu
, . Ddu d
u u m u; Idu d
u m u u. T
y u. Ddu m u;Idu m u . Ddu
y ; Idu y . Ddu
dd — m u
u; Idu d — m
u . Ty d Ddu
my d y u, Idu my
d u.” Hy y: “T y df . I uu
Ddu. N, ddu d
m u u, m
d u, m u . Idu, ,
y dfd m u
, m d , m
u. Smm du d m u. T ud m ddu, y
, m u ,
ud. T m y mu .
Bu y m m. Ddu is
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Ieiate Reasoning
71
resoning in whih the onusion is ontined in the premises.
T ud ud d mm y
yd m y du m. I , , my
du the proess b whih we go beond the
premises in the onusion. … T m
d m m
d m. I
yd m; T , u, d
u my du, ju d dm ddu. Ty tht the onusion
sh represent the sme gener kind s the premises ,
y d d. Bu yd
m known d.”
T xm my yu d
Idu R:
First Step. Pmy O. Exmpe: W u mgnets m ud u
ttrt iron. Ou m d m
my d : “A, B, C, D, E, F, G, ., d X, Y, d Z,
mgnets , d , d
d m, ttrt iron.”
Seond Step. T M Hy. Exmpe: U
d xm, d, dy xm Idu R, : “W u
my, u ,” jufd m
y u, y
u , u, u:
“ A m .”
Tird Step. Ddu R. Exmpe: P u
m d d x du md xm, y
ym, : (1) A m ; (2) Tis thing
m; (3) Tis thing . I
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he Art o Logical hinking
72
y xm Ddu R: “W u
u .”
Fourth Step. Vf. Exmpe: W d y u u m,
u . I m
d u y
d some m d not ;
u judgment d u “” m
u d not m. I , u
xm, d xm y. I u m does ,
fd u y d u judm.
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73
Chapter XII.
Reasoning by Induction.
T
he ter “Idu,” u, dfd
: “() T d
; d () ddu m ; () mm y ud
m d .” M y: “Indution , ,
md, y
u u , u
m m .
I d, Indution y ud
u ddu , u , u m u
m um m.”
T Bsis o Indution xm : “Wht is true o the
mn is true o the whoe.” E, uy,
xm m md m, : “T
d my m
d, d m d.”T xm Idu u
Nu’ d m u, dy d
uniorm. I um Nu d m
qu, xm mu , d du
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he Art o Logical hinking
74
mu u. A B y: “Idu
md dd u d m
. T dd d u m u; d m u y
Nu’ .” Sm u d
umy Nu’ u intuitive
u, u . O d
indutive u, d y x d
y y . W d d
umy u m, d m y umy uu d u.
T u um x d
Idu, my: (1) P Idu; d (2) Im
Idu. O, u m, m myd y d
u d .
Peret Indution d
u m ; , ddu j,, m mu
d umd m Idu. F ,
knew positive B’ d, d m
J, P, M, Lu, C, Wm, My d
Su, y; d d y m
d d d d ; , , d my
generizing d : “J, P, M, Lu, C,Wm, My d Su, B’ d,
d d d ,” ud d, d
du u: “A B’ d d
d d .” I d we inude
in the proess on wht is stted in the premise itse , d
d xd u du yd u d
u d. T m Idu mmd “L Idu,” u
y, u y x. By m
u d Idu , ,
u m mfd m um. I u
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Reasoning b Inction
75
dm , m m u
u u.
I duy, u m m du :
Imperet Indution , mm d “P
Idu,” y m du
um u uy
u y uy
, d y . I
the onusion extends yd d u d. I m Idu mu
uy my mm: “W u
my u ”— , mu ssume ,
u know y u x, u u
iner m xm x.
T u d my y u u
, u P Idu, u u d u
u um u
d.
I d u Idu
R d f
J, md d , m
m d dy mdd, d m f d y m
u. L u d u .
First Step. Pmy . I u
x d
d mm u , j,
d , qu my
z d du y Idu R. I y u m y
C d , j, d ,
my z m u. I
dd d C,
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76
my udm m m
d qum C. C
udm m . I d du fd du, mu m, d
u quy m. T d
d j ud d,
m. C
m mu d my , d
m f du d u dud.
A H y: “T mu f m.Su m ruit. W mu f
d d u—y, , qu, um,
u, , f, , . B x
, mu m d d u m
u d u. I uy
u, d u mu d. Py
m; u my d ud xmd. W u d d, du u
uy. N ud fm d u
ud.”
I Pmy O, fd
y d d
ud u. T y :
I. By Simpe Observtion , md u u . I y
m d; mm ;
m ; m, .
II. By Observtion o Experiment ,
d
u. A experiment : “A , , y;
, , dd d m uu, , m d ud
u .” H y: “ d my experiments
experiene.” J y: “Exm
m m; my, u
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Reasoning b Inction
77
d. T d
xm m d. I
f , y mu m yd uy d, m
xm my u . … I
u d f xm, y
u d y u d
. … I ud m u m
xm du , d u u
u u u. Experiments on give us the ts upon whih we m terword reson. … Exm
my , d y y u
m d . Te
gener rue is tht the sme uses wi produe the sme eets.
W ,
dd y y , d my y
. … W y d xm d uud m u,
mu fd m u
m um. … I d my, m u
d xm, u d
m uu, mu m
z. z d
m. u , d u u u
. I qu mu judm d z
y, u y dd u um d
u .”
H f Idu R
Pmy O, u d x
my d d d qud y O d Exm.
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78
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79
Chapter XIII.
Theory And Hypotheses.
F
ollowing Jevons’ f, fd Sd
S Idu R d “T M
Hy.”A Hpothesis : “A u,
ssumed or tken or grnted d d u
qu;
umd d, u d,
u ddu qu.” I
Hy my d possib or probb
true , d not ertin true ; u working ssumption , u mu d y d . T
um my y use ,
ws . A y, d y my
ud m , d
Ty.
A Teor : “A fd y; y
d , y, u .” A uy y“Teor d hpothesis. A theor udd
d dd
d. A hpothesis my um u
ud u m, u d
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80
u u uy . Myy, y
u y ud y mu
d.” B y: “W y x ,
d d x, d fd, d m
y. Tu y u ,
C y ym, uduy y
, ., y m y. T
m m uuy myd
du y; u mu dmd y ud . Ddd y
d ; d uy y
mm d y.”
T y ud u y umu
d d. I f my y y
md dd P Idu,
“ L Idu. I d y mz m um. T xm
d, d‑d d B, md u
, x md. I qu xm d
d y j m
y md. Hm y du
uy d y u. I d
xd u x. I mm .
F m m y y
d y m m Im Idu, y
m u, d
x, d m u du m
xm Idu R. T uj
Cu. J y: “T u d, d, m y .
P m mu duy u udd
u m, u y m
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heor An Hpotheses
81
yd the things tht must exist beore in order tht the event
sh hppen terwrd.”
Cu u d du dm. T f du y : I. T u my
u u x, d udd; II.
Cu jy, du d
dm u y d u; III.
O u, mdy u my
u u; IV. O my ud y
u; V. T use my u ‑ u.
M mud u
y u , ‑d du.
T : (1) T Md Am; (2) T
Md D; (3) T Md Rdu; d ( 4)
Md Cm V. T df
u y A :Method o Agreement: “I, j y
u u ,
dud, d j y
u .”
Method o Dierene: “I, ud u
, d ud u
, y
u, my y
ud u .”
Method o Residue: “W y m fd u
m u md,
my u du y d.”
Method o Conomitnt Vritions: “W d md y
qu, y m m d u d
.”
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82
A dd: “W ud
m d, d y
m u, d d , d d
du u.”
J u u :
I. “W quy
xmd , y rue or disovering whih
re uses nd whih re eets , : W mu y
quy , m m d m , d y
ju m m, y eet.”
II. “W y uy d quy,
simpe rue, b oowing whih we n judge whether hnges
re onneted together s uses nd eets , : T
xy qu m d
d .”III. “I y du x
m y z,
when we nnot be sure tht the things resembe eh other in
the importnt points. … U ud d u? W
m u . T y
d y u du .
H md , mu m y um, m y d. T
mu dduy; d y ddu
my , u
m ddu uu . … I du
jud my, d my , y m
m m y, u m
m y m. Te on rue u i things resembe eh other in ew properties
on, we must observe mn instnes beore inerring tht these
properties wi ws be joined together in other ses.”
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83
Chapter XIV.
Making and Testing
Hypotheses.
The oler d y u y.
I , m u,
u m y m
m u y d—
m uy y
y— possibe reson. W m
? L u d m. B y: “Ty d .
Ty u m y ,
m u. W d
; d the mind thinks the w. By
, md m
u du m m.
My y u hpp intuition o the mind. Ty u L P ‘ u,’
P uuy d ‘ d u u.’
T m y qu u md, y
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84
y, m, m
d u m, d d .”
T ud T N Pyy m m y—“ md
”—u
Suu Md, Suu Md.
(S um Suu Md .) N
y d y x d
yy d d, u d
uj d qu m B;d m my dd
m y. S Wm Hm dd
y m mm qu
dy Du Oy. H d dd
uj, u u u. Bu, fy, u dy
uddy “ u” , d
u z udm mm m. B, ud Sy
Cmy, fd d xm
d m d dm
u uy d u u u
; u, d, m m “
d,” , “ m y.” I d my
m , m ududyuy uj d uu. D. Hud md
“Suj Md” duy, d
uy d dy ddu, u
my my m , d
dy y.
I qu m Tm
: “T ym my mmzd m O qu
d u md d u
u d, d d dd y
, d xmd , ‘I
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Making an esting Hpotheses
85
um!’ W N , y
qu d u md, ‘Wy d y
d !’ I d d ym ; N d O d y
d u udy z u um
d m, d m m m;
d d d‑u d , m
dy, m u, ud ud
dy . Bu
; O u y , N d
u u d d
. … T dy G, dd
dm O dd m,
dd mmd ,
x y d ,
dy md d u . Bu G
m m xu dy u
m, d du
d . … A d, d
dy, u uud, G’ d
O’ . G d u y ,
d u m, m ud d . O d md m
y m y;
d d qu y.”
I mu ud, , y
fd u m Suu,
y u . O y my
m , y y . TSuu m— my
du u d m ud . Bu
uy y u m
. A W y: “ y u
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he Art o Logical hinking
86
m y y u .” K
d d y y d
’ fy d . A B y: “E y my
u f , y my d m
u. T u u m
y d ud erth , d
y, ., d u y
u . S ‘y ’ my,
md my , u ‘xd’udd . Ad , Tm y, “ y
‘Nu uum,’ d
my uy dd d. E
d ,
; u
x, .
T y , m m, m ddd y.”
H y d d y : “M
mu y my m du d
d; u d d du md
m x. A d x
d m. Bu ,
u d . H d , , fd u y u y . H du
y. H d d uy um
d m u u. Fm x
ud, m my u
y f, my
y. A m my ud um
d ud m . H ud u , u d m, d ud. T
d , m uu y y m
m du u. My d
d md; u mm m m.
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Making an esting Hpotheses
87
I y d .
Ndy d d , d
dd y u. B , , ud Au.”
B y d y y: “T
y y um
d m. x. T um
d m y u ,
u u u. … I
m y ud d, u
um m . … I d y
y mu u
d m. I umu d d,
d uj uy d qu
m d,
u dd u, d y d fd. Tu y ‘dy ’
x u u dy d
d uy u. T y D.
W d my f
y. Sm , , M d ,
m d y y, mu
y x d m, u y u
m. … T m f dd
. By , d y
ud fd.”
J y: “I u (f), d
m ddu dy d,
y d , m d xm, fd u
y u. I m d
dm u ddu d u ,
m y y , d
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he Art o Logical hinking
88
mu . I d du m
mm u y
m d. W d y m u , mu
um y . W mu m
ddu m ud u um, d,
, u y u, ,
m m d u . W
y y u my
u, y u d ud d dd, m
y u . … Smm
qu d y
m , uzzd
. … W u y, d
, d d m
y d , u mmdy u dd. m y
u d .”
I m d verition
y md
u “” . T ts my
d m ,
ts d y ddu . T my d d u y
u. Tu y “A m m,”
my dduy d
y mn mu d . T
u y u eh nd ever mn m my
uj d xm. I fd m
d d, d u y; y m ( “” )
m, u y d. T
ddu : “I ‑d‑
u d u‑d‑u ; d u
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Making an esting Hpotheses
89
; ‑d‑ u
d u .” T um xd
d Hy P ( CIX), d m
uj Ddu R. T J d,
“Ddu R Td S Idu R,
d d Vf”, dy dd.
H y: “A Idu fd m
d u u mj m, my d dedutive
y y m . Idu d ddu
dy‑md mj m. … Ddu ,
m quy u u. … Oy
d d, j fd,
mj m md, dedution myd.”
I , d
d R ud m—Ddu R.
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91
Chapter XV.
Deductive Reasoning.
W
e have
, y, (1) Idu
R, dy u mu u; d (2) Ddu R, dy
u u m u.
A d, Ddu R
d u u m u. Tu m
u mdd “A
m,” dd
dy “D ,” ddu u u : “D m.” O,
ddu u u m
u, : “A mum d ; uu
mum; , uu d .” A ddu
um xd ddu ym.
J y d d u: “H
d ; u f , d m
. W u m ,
iner or reson , d d md. R u
u u u u
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he Art o Logical hinking
92
. I y dd ud
d , ud
my qu. Bu d u mum my y d y y ,
d u m d dy
, mum d , u y
d u u u uu
u d . o reson, then, is to get some knowedge
rom other knowedge.”
T ud z Ddu R y n nti proess , u
d yz u u
u— u udd
—d m “ u
u u.” Tu u
“A m m,” udd u u
“J Sm m”—J Sm dd m. W ddu u u u J Sm
m u u “ m.” W yz “ m”
d fd J Sm u . T,
“Ddu m ; ,
y .”
T ud z Ddu R
y desending proess , u d d m u u; m
; m d . A
B y: “Ddu dd m u
u, m , m u m, .
G , y ddu dd
ud , ;
d m u my d d d u m.”
T u ud Ddu
R dd y. T mjy
m Idu R, d u x,
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Dective Reasoning
93
d xm. F xm ,
ud uuy u : “A m”
u d uy udd d m . N u udy ud “D
.” N ud , u u udy, x
d xm uuy : “A mum
d ;” “ uu mum;” d
“, uu d .” E , mu
u uu y mum, u
u. G u d not intuitive ,y y m, u d u u x
x .
T u d intuitive y
m u. H y : “Sm y
m d d u
du ddu; z u
mm j, u y . Ud d u d fd
u : W j d
mmdy m , x d
. W d u m. W
d ; qu
m qu ;
, immedite , uy, z u m. Am d m
u u u. … W y ‑d,
uy. T xm mm
d d u.”
A u, , dy u
u d u, u u. Ty m
u d m d , d “u” my u d
reprodued b memor or heredit. Ty d
intuitions m d m my
x , ddu, m
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he Art o Logical hinking
94
m d y uu
ddu. H d : “T
u . I yu du y, u , d m u . T
y m
du. Ty d
d y u x. T d
qu ud d md d
u mdfd uu, y. T
d d u x. … T m u u d
m y. G um u
y jd ; , u
m y qu.
T dy d m
dy md y
dy y, u m u.”
A u my y.
Hy m “Fudd ud y
u; umd d, u d,
u ddu qu.” T
y d y ud
u ddu . Hy u u m umd d d
Ddu R, d u
u ud m. Ty , ,
u m um, u u
um dd u y x, xm d
Idu R. T L G my dd
y, d y u Idu Rd u muud d m.
T Primr Bsis o Dedutive Resoning my d
u xm, m d u m
, d d : “Whtever is true
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Dective Reasoning
95
o the whoe is true o its prts.” O, u
xd : “W u u
u.” T xm u ud uDdu R. I u u dy
ddu um. I d
m “T uu d ,”
jufd m m y
‑d , xm, “W u
u u.” I “mum”
d , u, “ uu” mum,mu d . A () m,
d xm, D (u ) mu
m.
T xm d u m
d . F : “W my md
dd , my dd md ;”
m dy dd m ud y Hm d: “W , d ,
, d , d
.” A mud d Dum :
“W dd my y y
m dud, dd m
d u ddu d ud .”
T m Ddu R, m d u xm : “W
u u .” T m
mm d Mm R, u
m myd mm. I xm d
: “T qu m ,
qu .” I
myd mm. Tu: “x qu y; d y qu 5;, x qu 5.” O ‘ d m: “A qu B; B
qu C; , A qu C.” Tu m
, dy m Ddu R,
y medite , , md u mdum d
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he Art o Logical hinking
96
, “ md u
d.”
B : “T y mm my d : F,
d df, y, d x quy.
Sd, df, d d
y, x, d du u. Td, xm m
d u y m ‑d
d y u. Cm x d y
y , u mu uy u.O, d y, u df d xm
m ym, u y.
T uy m
u dd u.”
I u, yu
m J y d d .
J y: “T m u u u my um, my d
m ud y u mmy
. T u whtever is true o one term is true o n
term whih is stted to be the sme in mening s tht term. I
d, my y substitute one term or nother i we
know tht the reer to ext the sme thing . T du
m m, d d d m m. T um u
ud u ym, u u
d m ; my, , m
m; d , d m m. Bu y m
ud u I , u my
u ‘m m’ d ‘ ’. A my um
my xd y. Gd m; d m. A u; ,
, u.”
T m m uy y: “W xm
uy u y , ud
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Dective Reasoning
97
in ever se to onsist in putting one thing or term in pe o
nother, to whih we know it to hve n ext resembne in
some respet. W u d d, d u m d d
; u the true prinipe o resoning m be ed the
substitution o simirs, or the pssing rom ike to ike. W
m m
‑, d m. W
x , u ; y
y , u , u y , .”
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he Art o Logical hinking
98
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99
Chapter XVI.
The Syllogism.
T
he thir d —
yd C d
Judm— y y m“R,” m, , ud ud
d f . T
m j,
, u d j, .
A, , () mmm m;
() mmm; d () , thereore ,
m. T m udm m j u
u d y m d j. T
u m x d
“Sym.”
T x
um m Sym mu udd
m Sym. T y m y d, u
mm uzzd y md df
d m u. L u u
j, A, B d C, y. W m C
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he Art o Logical hinking
100
d B, u m f. W
A d B; d
C d A. W u (1) “Aqu B; d (2) C qu A”. T x
“ A qu B, d C qu A, mu , y,
tht C equs B.” T d medite
m, immedite. C d B md
dy mmdy, u dy d u mdum
A. A u d medite B d C.
T m d j u, x . I m
udm m m . A B
y: “T m mm
m j u d.” T
u um xd d
Sym. Wy y : “A Sym um
xd m u m m uu x , u
y d m m.” B y: “A
d uy xd m
ym. I du d ddu ,
d m d. I
m um u qu
.”I d u d u Sym my
y udd, d
yu d ‑ “Ru
Sym,” udd
m Sym .
T Ru Sym d Sym
peret Sym, y:I. Tt there shoud be three, nd no more thn three,
Propositions. T : (1) Conusion ,
d; d (2 d 3) Pm, m
Cu, d d Mj
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he Sllogis
101
Pm d M Pm, y. W my udd
m y xm xm:
Mjor Premise: “M m;” ( “A B”).Minor Premise: “S m;” ( “C A”). T:
Conusion: “S m” ( “C B”)
I Sym, xd
d ym, y d, u u mu
y m. Ad, , m
u, mu u u. Wy
y: “A Sym d d uy m m; u d
, Sym d d u Fy,
d m; u dd
d d u Sm.”
T Ru I y — Mj
Pm, M Pm, d Cu— dd
m Sym. I m three mu m m m d
u. T m m ud
u m m Sym,
u m Sym.
II. Tt there shoud be three nd no more thn three erms.
T m (1) T Pd Cu; (2)
Suj Cu; d (3) Mdd m muu m,
m Cu.
T Predite o the Conusion d Mjor erm ,
u x. md
m. T Subjet o the Conusion d Minor m
u m x md
m. T Mj d M m d Extremes. TMdd m Exm.
T Mjor erm d Midde erm mu
Mjor Premise.
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he Art o Logical hinking
102
T Minor erm d Midde erm mu
Minor Premise.
T Minor erm d Mjor erm mu Conusion.
Tu T Mjor erm mu Pd
Cu; Minor erm Suj Cu;
Midde erm my Suj Pd o either o the
premises , u must ws be ound one in both premises.
T xm m m
y:I Sym: “M m; S m;
S m,” m: “M,”
Mj m; “S,” M m; d “M,”
Mdd m; :
Mjor Premise: “M” (midde term) m (mjor term).
Minor Premise: “S” (minor term) m (mjor term).
Conusion: “S” (minor term) m (mjor term).T u “on three” m
m two terms
u mdum third term. T must m;
more m, m ym
d .
III. Tt one premise, t est, must be frmtive. T,
u “m d.” A d,
d d,
m m. I u Sym d : (1)
“M not m;” d (2) “S not m;”
ud m Cu, S ws ws not
m T ud
m, d Cu ud ddudm. T, m mu m.
IV. I one premise is negtive, the onusion must be negtive.
T u “ m d d
d m, y mu d .” Tu u
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he Sllogis
103
Sym d : (1) “M not m;” d ( 2) :
“S m;” mu u N Cu
: (3) “S not m.”V. Tt the Midde erm must be distributed; (tht is, tken
univers) in t est one premise. T “u, ,
Mj m my md
Mdd m, d M m
; d uy mm Mdd. m,
d quy mm ud .” T
u u mmy “TUdud Mdd,” d Fy dmd y
. I Sym md xm
, “Mn m,” y m “ A m,”
, M u . Ly
“A m m,” m S
“ m” ( some m) mu quy
u M. I Sym, d, d: “Some m m,” ud S must m—
m m . A m y
m (1) W ; (2). B
; (3) B mu W. T m re
m “W some ; B some ; d
“ .” A xm : “M d; d
d; , m d.” I xm “d” dud “ d” u my ‑dud
“some d.” T ym, , d
u, mu . Ty u ym, d u
.
“distributed ,” Mdd m mu Suj
U P, Pd N
P; “undistributed” mu Suj Pu P, Pd Am
P. (S P.)
VI. Tt n extreme, i undistributed in Premise, m not be
distributed in the Conusion. T u ud
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he Art o Logical hinking
104
d u m u
fd m. I ud m u :
(1) “A m; (2) m ; (3) m m.” T u ud d, u
m nim dud u, (
d ) dud
m ( d m ).
A d , y Sym y
x ym d d y.
T dd u my d d.Ay ym d u,
m f x u
d.
T wo Derivtive Rues o the Sogism :
VII. Tt one Premise t est must be Univers. T u
“m u m u d.”
VIII. Tt i one premise is Prtiur, the Conusion must be prtiur so. T u y u u
d m u m.
T d D Ru my
d y Sym m. Ty
u, d y ym
m ud m u
.
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105
Chapter XVII.
Varieties Of Syllogisms.
T
he athorities L d u d
ud y d
m, m dd d um, d the nineteen moods
o the sogism. T fd y d
d the our gures , fu my y
mdd m m. L
d d uu ud
d jd u d
m m ud d d ym. W , y
u uj u, d u y
y ud uy mz
m d L Sym d
dm y y
um ym, .
I my dy u d x ompete y m md, d u .
I mm u m m ym,
dy x, m m d y
d . A ym m uxd
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he Art o Logical hinking
106
mm d Enthmene , m m “
md.” F , : “W ,
y,” mj m “A y” md uxd. A “P
m, By m,” m
m “By ” md uxd. J
y d uj: “Tu Sm
Mu, Bud
m d u, d u u f.
‘Bd mu: y my.’ T ujd d u d,
y ‘T mu d.’ I dy
understood ‘A my d,’
ym, d u , m: ‘A
my d; A mu
my; T, mu d.’ T
y d ym.”W fd y d: “beuse, or, thereore,
sine ,” m m, my um,
d uuy ym.
W d P,
my, (1) C P,
m d md u
quf; (2) Hy P, m d md dd u
d, um, u; d (3) Dju
P, md d terntive.
T m d u
m m .
Ad, dy ym x
m m m. Tu, C Sym y
; Hy Sym
m y ; Dju Sym
dju mj m.
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Varieties O Sllogiss
107
Ctegori Sogisms , m mm
d, dd u
, d mjy xm ym d. I C Sym
m d md y, d u
quf, d u
m . I ym
d d umd m u
d , d, y mu
u , d m mu C u.
Hpotheti Sogisms , y, m
m y m
m dd, “,” m u.
Hy y : “O f u, y
dy, u u ,
u d mj m dmd. T qu
dd u m m m. T
d mj m dmd
u m du , d m m
uuy m y d mj. Cquy,
md m y um
y m qu m u mj m d u
u d d,
y f dy d .”
By j y dy
Hy P. F :
“I Y d y; Y does
d; , Y y.” O: “I dogs u ,y qudud; d do u ; d
re qudud.” T Hy Sym my
m ; , y my
yy frm yy den. T
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he Art o Logical hinking
108
m Hy Sym d
qu (d uuy d
“”) d Ad. T mj m uuy u dd. T dd
, d u
ud d um, d Cqu.
Tu, xm: “I d u ”
Ad; d md : “y
qudud” Cqu. T Ad dd y
m d m : i, supposing, grntedtht, provided tht, though, hd, were , .,
d m u m d “i .” T
Cqu d m.
J d m Ru regrding
the Hpotheti Sogism:
I. “I Ad md, qu my
md. I Cqu dd, Ad my dd.”
II. “Ad y m qu, dy
d. T y u
d m md mj m m not be
the on one dm qu.” T
xm “Am Cqu:” “I , y
udd; y is udd; , is rining .”I u, y my udd, d my not
. T y m xd
ym, : “I A B, C D; C is D; , A B.”
T y dy Ad y
xm: “I Rdum ud uu; Rdum
not ; Rdum is not uu.” O, xd
ym: “I A B, C D; A not B; C is not D.” Iu Rdum my uu u . J
xm : “I m d
, uy udd uj; u J J
uy udd uj; , d
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Varieties O Sllogiss
109
.” A, “I mxd m;
ud not mxd ; d not m.”
J y: “ m qu d m d, d d
u ym, d udud mdd
m. … dy d y u
u ym, d m dud
u m.”
Hy Sym my uuy y dud
d C Sym. A J y: “I y,y d ym d m
m uy dd. It is mtter
o the onveniene o stting the propositions.” F ,
d y: “I Rdum , ud uu,”
my y “C Rdum ud uu;” d y:
“I , y,” my y “T
y.” Hy Rue or Conversion u: “Rd d y
uj , d qu
y d . I
m y m ;
d y y umu.”
T d ym, Te Disjuntive
Sogism , x d dym mu f d m ud Ru Sym,
d d . N y d u
y Ru, u m dy ym
my y. A J y: “I ud m
u d um mu y u
ym, d. Oy
um m y m mdd m, d ym, d y
u. A my um dy u
u; u my d um,
m udd y u
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110
y. O m d um
Dju Sym, u d y u
ym, y y m ym.”T Dju Sym dju
mj m. T dju
u dju
mj m m m. A
dju , , “
d uj ju
“or ” (mm md y “either ”) . A : “L or d;” ,”A either
ud d;” , “A u, d,
u.” T d jd y “” d
A, m d my
, d u my
, m other .
T Rue regrding the Use o Disjuntive Sogisms :“I m dd, my
md.” Tu y “A B C,” “A B
C,” my den B u m C. Sm u
d “I m , mu dy
md,” u uy dud y
u. I ud m d u
m “” : “A either B C,” u m m u.
Bu : “A B or C,” my y both
being true. J , xm
: “A M Ju‑‑‑P, My,
Sdy M,” u d
Ju‑‑‑P my m m
My. H : “A m ydy i there be suh dierene between them tht
the oud not be true t the sme time.” I ud m
m m u, xm
y J u , d “T
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Varieties O Sllogiss
111
uy ” u
d.
A Diemm d ym Mj Pm m . Wy df : “A
d ym m d
mj, d dju m.” T muuy
xu Mj Pm,
md dm , d u
“ dmm.”
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112
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113
Chapter XVIII.
Reasoning By Analogy.
W
hat is d R y Ay m
my m , d
mjy u m quy my. I m m y z d u
x “ y d
um.” T m ud
dfd “Rm ; m y
d um du my
udd.” B y: “Ay u y
m m u, y m m
u.”
J Rue or Resoning b Anog , : “I
m m my , y
y m m .” O
d m : “W
m u, m
u;” d “I u, y
u.”
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114
T d z y du,
d y y. I du z u : “W
u my u ;” u y :“ m mm
mm.” A J y m: “R y Ay
d y d m d d
‘Gz.’ W mn things m
ew properties , u u m y Gz. W
ew things m mn properties ,
y.” Iu Ay, my y A fd qu, u d , b, , d, e, , g,
y, d fd B qu, ., d , b,
, d, e, y, , my y y
qu d mu B.
B y m : “T
dy d . A y,
, y d d u yd , d
u, d is yd . S,
d m , , u ,
ud d y u .
I y y D. Bud ud m
m , d uquy
m dd, u ud .” H y: “I um
mu dd y dd m.
… T d u u u. I
ud um, mu d m
x u . … T udy y my
md y d d u
. W y md du d, u u
dy md uy , m d
md, u u
, u u y uu.”
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Reasoning B Analog
115
Bu ud mu ud d
u mm m R y Ay. A
J y: “I my R y Ay ud y u ud. I m uu m
md. Cd mm d y d
u , y y
, u , m m ,
ud d m. Pu d
y m mum, y y
umd m. I Ny mum dm , d ; u I ud
d d m d , I mud y
, d d d d
d m m . T y m
y y. E u m m
y m d. T d y , d
d u y yu d u , u.” H
y: “My muud, d x
u x m. T mjy
y ju y
dd m dd
mu. … T dy d mu d
m , .” By: “T um m Ay u, u
d. Tu Am ,
Au , u,
y . S u J Sm d
d dud, Hy J d
dud, ud du . … Cu
d d m y quy u.”Rd Rue or Resoning rom Anog , J y:
“T y y u u
u y y y. T y u
; m y m ,
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116
m y y m ,
y y d d. …
I d u u u, u fd m y, u u y
d . I y
m m u u
u ddu du. Bu y y
d u d ; y u .
W u y u
x y d, d d . … W fd y
y ddd u, u m u
quy u d qu,
y my du d ddu .”
A m , B y: “T m
y, m du, ud ud u.
I u mu dd , u my d y. T m
, m m , dd
y y. y, mu
y u y u;
m. H y d y
d y. I my d y, u y. W mu, ,
u y m y u u
d u y u d xm,
y u du m
du.”
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117
Chapter XIX.
Fallacies.
A
Fallacy is: “A uud um md u,
, d qu,
y ; um yud, u y u; u m ,
, d y
md d; y.”
I Ddu R, m F;
my, (1) Fu Pm; d (2) Fu Cu.
W d u.
Fious Premise n unwrrnted ssumption o premises. O m mm m d Fy
“Begging the Question ,”
um udm m dd;
u um d;
um y d, u
. I m mm m dy
m u , uy d y, d d u m mj m
um, d y m . T
um d y
mm the premise hs been mere ssumed , u
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118
d u d m y “i .”
O my d u y m m “T
m md ,” u um d d u u m
“d qu” u ud m.
Hy d xm m y
“Cu d S ud ud.” P
dmdd d d “ qu”
: “Gd u ud ud; Cu d
S d u; , Cu d S ud ud.” T “Gd u ud
ud” u, my umd d .
T ud , d dd
du f, u d
some d u my ud, “”
u ud .
“B Qu” m giving nmeto thing , d um expined
. T y qu my —y
y expin y my y m. A xm
d d d x y
ud u y y “u
.” O x
u y “u .” M m dum y du dum. T
y : “N m y x ;
m m .” “Y, y,”
j , “u u, yu , y
.” T y y : “A u
u yu md
u.” J y: “T m qu y, ,
mm d y my m my
d m, d u u
u d u, mu dmd. W m
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Fallacies
119
u m m uj m,
, y, u
‘um,’ d ud d.H ym:
“N um ud d; J R’
um: T, J R’ ud
d.
“T qu m; u dy m
m um. ‘Um’ m wht
sportsmn shoud not do. T ud umy df wht ws
unsportsmnike.”
A m “B Qu,” d
, d “R C.” I m
y um
; , u u m. F :
“T m u u; d uu .” O, “I m u umm; d
umm u m.” O “H d x,
u m d.”
B y: “Tu u y d u
d d mu, d mu d
u y dd y x y,
. S u u U, u d y Gd, d u
u u mu udd y Gd,
y y. u ‘ dmd
y m’ d df m
‘ u ,’ u
d . P mm u
mmy u m my, d dm my m mmy.” I d
d , u y
. Hy y: “T y R C u
my um mmd u
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120
dy d. … W u du my
mmd u y dy. I y d
y u yym x m d y d .” W d
Vu C ud u ym
ud ym, u
m ud f origin sogism.
Fious Conusion n unwrrnted or irreevnt
ssumption o ogi onusion. T my m
y m :Shiting ground ,
y my m d
d. I um u m
mu y d; u
m d Su mu
.
Fious Questioning , m dqu d, d d
. F : “Yu m zd
mmuy, m ‑ ud ?” “Y.”
“T, yu ‑ m d u
z mmuy?” A qu d
d m
d u . F , qu d z
d: “H yu d yu m!” A
“Y” “N,” u qu. ud
d , d
m, ud m.
Prti Proo , d
ud d . F, u u m uy
du y my
.
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Fallacies
121
Appe to Pubi Opinion , jud
u d judm . I
d um y qu. I um, d .
Appe to Authorit, or Reverene , d
u ud u
judm . F :
“W u ‑d‑, d mu ;”
“I m A d;” “I
d y m ud y, , ;” “Wu d mu u.” A d my
, u y , d
um.
Appe to Proession , md ,
,
judm. Tu my u y
ud d, u d , y, m . T
um ud y , d
d m y. Bu d um
y , u my
m, my d d
— jd.
Appe to Gener Beie , md u , u m my uud
y . T qu mm, u um. T
mm my u, y . A
u um ud ud
, . A ‑uy ud
D. dy ud d. I
y y y u. Appe to Ignorne , md
my m
y y. I uy um
: “S‑d‑ mu u, beuse ou nnot prove tht
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he Art o Logical hinking
122
it is not.” A B y: “ u m
d, u x md
x, d y Hum y. T fd d y
.”
Introdution o New Mtter , d Non Sequitur ,
m dud u
m. Hy xm : “A
m rtion ; S m; , S
nobe.” D M m mx xm:“Ey Su ; T Cu Ed
y E u Ed; , u
d u u ud.”
O , m m
md, :
F o Ambiguous erms , d m
m d ud du u um. A J y: “A d d m is re two
words.”
Conusion between Coetive n Gener Menings o
erm , J y: “I ud uy ud
u u B Muum Ly
u m u K Ad, y
u u . By ‘ B Muum Ly,’ m tken together . T
my u d, d
um u x
d.”
Arguing rom the Coetive to the Gener , y
u u m u
u , u y . J y: “ A d m my
u , u ud u ever
d m ud u dd.
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Fallacies
123
W d m ; u
u my m m.”
Unertin Mening o Sentene , m u d u um my . J y: “T
umu y mu :
Bu m no ; d no t
; , n .” H y
u punning “.”
Proving the Wrong Conusion , m
u u md, u m m d. J y: “T
d Im, d
d , d m d ;
d thirt d not m d
. Equy d m d
m, d d, ‘I m m; I m
.’”F o Unsuessu Argument , md
u beuse ertin rgument hs ied
the opposite onusion is proven. T y qu mm,
y ju. O d
, d juy u
mu . T y u,
y y third x. I m ibi ju y. T
u m ibi d
u u ud. Od
y u md ibi d
ju ud m d d
m. Y, ,
dy y u . A J d:“No number o iures in ttempting to prove proposition re
disprove it.” A d u my d
m m; i. e. , “ .”
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124
A Viotions o the Rues o the Sogism u ,
my y m ym
m u.T , uy m,
d d nme ,
my ‑ u, d y
dd uy. Sm
umd my y m m, u
md my d
mm . A udd udm L R u x d um , d
u udd m u mmz
nmes ‑ ud d
d.
I dd d Ddu
R, m
Indutive Resoning . L u y d m.Hst nd Fse Generiztion mm y .
P mm qu ddu
, d my ddu
mu m qu. quy mm
y. Em Ud S
u u u
m m m duu z d Am , d u
d ddu,
. Am d mm m
. A y u uy d d
uy z. A B y:
“N y ud d u u
umu du d.”Fies o Observtion u m md
m my md :
(1) Creess Observtion , x d ;
(2) Prti Observtion , y
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Fallacies
125
, m md, d u m
m d m ;
(3) Neget o Exeptions nd Contrditor Fts , x d dy d, y
udu m d ; (4) Assumption o
Fts , um u
uu; (5) Conusing o Inerenes with Fts ,
m u.
Fies o Mistken Cuse u m um
u, , m xm: Substituting the Anteedent or the Cuse ,
um m d use
. Tu m um
use dy, u preeded ;
m u u d
; u d d
d used d, u d y y d y dd;
d u Pd y d
uud m . Sm ydy
qu ju md.
Substituting the Smptom or the Cuse ,
um use m m ymm, d
u. um m m use d, ud mm y
d. W md y ud
um ‑ u Cz, d
m d . P d um
d d, uses
y, uu d dm d,
. O m u, qu , um u y,
m um m. O,
dud , m .
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126
Te F o Anog um m
dy, x. W
. B y, : “I y y y ; m y
mu m Gd m uju jud.”
I u, ud yu
d m J, x m:
“I m md ,
d, orret resoning onsists in substituting ike things or
ike things , d u u m m d
m. O d, inorret resoning onsists
in putting one thing or nother where there is not the requisite
ikeness. I u u ddu d du
u jud u
y y m m .”
inis.
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Bibliography
A, Wm W. Te Art o Logi Tinking or Te Lws o Resoning .
C, IL: T P Cmy, 1909.
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