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Are cognitive styles still in style?
ARTICLE in AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST JUNE 1997
Impact Factor: 6.87 DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.52.7.700
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Oklahoma State University - Stillwater
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A r e C o g n i t i v e S t y l e s S t i l l i n S t y l e
R o b e r t J . S t e rn b e r g a n d E l e n a L . G r i g o r e n k o
Yale Univers i ty
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I iJ I I I I I
Are cogni t i ve s t y l e s s t i l l in s t y l e ? The au thor s as ser t t ha t
they are and , indeed , t ha t they may prov ide a s prom is ing
a n i n r o a d t o p r e d i c t in g s c h o o l a n d o t h e r k i n d s o f p e rf o r -
mance as do ab i l i t i e s . F i r s t , t he au thor s in t roduce the
c o n c e p t o f c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s a n d d i s c u s s w h y t h e y h a v e
p i q u e d t h e i n t e re s t o f p sy c h o l o g i s t s f o r m a n y y e a r s a n d
cont inue to do so. Second , 3 mot i va t ions fo r theo ry and
research on cogni t i ve s t y l e s are descr ibed . Th i rd , some
of the pr inc ipa l l i t e ra ture on cog ni t i ve s t y l e s i s br i e fl y
rev iewed . Four th , t he au thor s presen t the i r own theory
and research , sugges t ing i t ma y prese n t a par t i cu lar l y
promis ing approach . F ina l l y , t hey draw some conc lu-
s ions about s t y l e s and make some sugges t ions r egard ing
pro f i tab le d i r ec t ions fo r fu ture theory an d research .
u p p o s e y o u w e r e t o l d t h at t h e re i s a m y s t e r y c o n -
s t r u c t t h a t p r e d i c t s s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t a s w e l l a s ,
o r p o s s i b l y e v e n b e t t e r t h an , i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l it i e s ,
a s m e a s u r e d b y c o n v e n t io n a l p s y c h o m e t r i c t e s ts o f i n te l -
l i g e n c e . P e r h a p s y o u w o u l d b e s k e p t i c a l , b o t h b e c a u s e
c o n v e n t i o n a l a b i l i t y t e s t s p r e d i c t s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t s o
w e l l a n d b e c a u s e o t h e r k i n d s o f m e a s u r e s ( w i t h t h e e x -
c e p t i o n o f t e s t s o f s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t ) h a v e n o t h a d a s
m u c h s u c c e s s i n p r e d i c t i n g s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t a s h a v e
c o n v e n t i o n a l a b i l i t y te s t s ( A n a s t a s i , 1 9 8 8 ; C r o n b a c h ,
1990) .
N e x t , y o u a r e t o l d t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f a m e a s u r e o f
t h i s m y s t e r y c o n s t r u c t w i t h s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t i n a s a m -
p l e o f 1 2 4 e l e m e n t a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i s
. 0 1. Y o u w o u l d s m i l e . S o m u c h f o r t h e m y s t e r y c o n s t r u c t :
a n o t h e r p r o m i s s o r y n o t e t h a t p r o v e s t o h a v e n o v a l u e
w h e n i t is c a s h e d i n , t h a t i s , w h e n i t i s a c t u a ll y e m p i r i c a l l y
va l ida t e d .
B u t y o u a r e t o l d , f i n a l l y , t h a t t h e t r u e c o r r e l a t i o n o f
t h e m y s t e r y c o n s t r u c t i s b e i n g m a s k e d b y a m o d e r a t o r
v a r i a b l e , n a m e l y , t h e s c h o o l i n w h i c h t h e e m p i r i c a l v a l i -
d a t i o n i s d o n e . I n a n a v a n t - g a r d e , p r i v a t e e l e m e n t a r y -
s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l e m p h a s i z i n g e m o t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n t h a t
v i e w s i t s e l f a s b e i n g a t t h e c u tt i n g e d g e o f s c h o o l r e f o r m ,
t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e m y s t e r y c o n s t r u c t w i t h s c h o o l
a c h i e v e m e n t i s - . 3 8 ( p < . 0 5 ); in a s e c o n d s c h o o l , a
C a t h o l i c p a r o c h i a l e l e m e n t a r y - s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l t h a t
v i e w s i t s e l f a s q u i t e t r a d it i o n a l , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n i s . 4 9 ( p
< . 01 ). I n t w o o t h e r s c h o o l s - - a w e l l - re s p e c te d , n a t io n -
a l l y k n o w n p r e p a r a t o r y s c h o o l a n d a l a r g e , u r b a n p u b l i c
s c h o o l - - t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e - . 3 9 a n d . 1 0 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
P e r h a p s n o w y o u r i n t e r e s t w o u l d b e p i q u e d . A f t e r a l l ,
h o w m a n y c o n s t r u c ts s h o w c o r r e l a ti o n s w i t h s c h o o l
a c h i e v e m e n t t h a t d i f f e r b y c l o s e t o . 9 0 in t w o d i f f e r e n t
sc hoo l s , t ha t a re s t a t i s t i c a l ly s ign i f i c a n t i n oppos i t e d i r e c -
t i o n s , a n d t h a t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m e a c h o t h e r a s
w e l l ?
M o r e o v e r , h o w m a n y c o n s t r u c t s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t l y p r e -
d i c t s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t , a b o v e a n d b e y o n d a b i l i t i e s , i n
p a r t b e c a u s e o f t h e g e n u i n e t a s k d e m a n d s o f th e s c h o o l
a n d i n p a r t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e s o u r c e s o f b i a s i n t e a c h e r s '
e v a l u a t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s , w h e r e b y t e a c h e r s e v a l u a t e s t u -
d e n t s m o r e f a v o r a b l y o n t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s i f s t u d e n ts a r e
m o r e l i k e t h e m s e l v e s ? S u c h c o n s t r u c t s c e r t a i n l y o u g h t t o
b e r e c e i v i n g a t t e n t io n , w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e y c u r r e n t l y a r e .
I f y o u r i n t e r es t i s i n d e e d p i q u e d , t h e n p e r h a p s y o u
w o u l d l i k e t o r ea d m o r e a b o u t
thinking s ty les ,
w h i c h a r e
n o t t h e m s e l v e s a b i l i ti e s b u t r a t h e r p r e f e r r e d w a y s o f u s i n g
the a b i l it i e s one ha s (S t e rnbe rg , 1988 , 1990 , 1 994b ,
1 9 9 7 ). T h i n k i n g s t y l e s a r e b u t o n e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a
b r o a d e r p r o g r a m o f r e se a r c h i n w h i c h p s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e
b e e n e n g a g e d f o r m a n y d e c a d e s , t h a t o n cogni t ive s ty les ,
o r p e o p l e ' s c h a r a c t e ri s t ic a n d t y p i c a l ly p r e f e r r e d m o d e s
o f p r o c e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . C o g n i t i v e s t y l e s a r e , in t u r n ,
a s u b s e t o f t h e g e n e ra l c o n s t r u c t o f s ty le , w h i c h c a n b e
d e f i n ed a s a d i s ti n c ti v e o r c h a r a ct e r is t i c m a n n e r . . .
o r m e t h o d o f a c t in g o r p e r f o r m i n g ( G u r a l ni k , 1 9 7 6 , p .
1415) .
O u r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s i s d i v i d e d
i n t o f o u r m a j o r p a r t s . F i rs t , w e m o t i v a t e o u r d i s c u s s i o n b y
d e s c r i b i n g w h y p s y c h o l o g i s t s , i n c l u d i n g o u r s e l v e s , h a v e
b e e n i n t e r e s t e d o v e r t h e y e a r s i n c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s a s a
p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t . S e c o n d , w e r e v i e w s o m e o f t h e
p r i n c i p a l l i t er a t u r e i n t h e f i e ld o f c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s, r e c o g -
n i z i n g a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t a t h o r o u g h l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w
Editor s note. Will iamBevan served as action editor for this article.
Author s note. Ro bert . Sternberg and Elena L. G rigorenko; Depart-
ment of Psychology,Yale University.
Preparation of this article was suppo rted under the Javits Act Pro-
gram (Gr ant R206R50001) as administeredby the Officeof Edu cational
Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education. G rantees
undertaking such projects are encouraged to expre ss freely their profes-
sional judgm ent. Thi s article, therefore, does not n ecessarily represent
the position s or p olicies of the feder al government, and no o fficial
endorsement should be inferred.
We are grateful to Marie M artin and R ichard Wagner for their
collaborations in some of o ur w ork in the area of thinking styles.
Copies of instruments we have used in our research are available
at co st from us.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Robert J. Sternberg, Departm ent of Psychology, Yale University, Box
208205. New Haven, CT 06520-8205. Electronic mail may be sent via
Internet to sterobj@yalevm.cis.yale.edu.
7 0 0
J u l y 1 9 97 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g is t
Copyright 1997 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0003-066X/97/ 2.00
Vol. 52, No. 7, 700-712
7/24/2019 Are cognitive styles still in style?
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would be impossible in the context of a relatively brief
journal article. We also discuss why cognitive styles,
much like wide neckties, s eem cyclically to come in and
go out of fashion as the years pass and why we believe
that the construct, like one' s collection of wide neckties,
is worth saving. Third, we brief ly describe some o f our
own theory and research in the area and argue that our
approach shows the general promise of the construct.
Finally, we draw some conclusions and provide sugges-
tions for how research in the field might progress in the
future.
Why Should Psychologists Care bout
Cog nitive Styles
Interest in cognitive styles goes back at least to Jung
(1923), who proposed a theory of psychological types
that, in modified form, is still used today in assessments
of styles through the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory
(MB TI; Myers McC aulley, 1985; Myers Myers,
1980). However, modern research actively began in sev-
eral laboratories within a short span of time with the wo rk
of Witkin (1964; Witkin, D yk, Faterson, Goodenough,
Karp, 1962; Witldn et al., 1954); Klein (Klein, Gard-
ner, Schlesinger, 1962; Kl ein Schlesinger, 1951;
Smith Klein, 1953); Gardner, Mess ick, and Jacks on
(Gardner, 1959, 1962; Gardner, Holzman, Klein, Lin-
ton, Spen ce, 1959; Gardner, Jac kson , Me ssick , 1960;
Me ssick Ross, 1962); Kagan (1958, 1965a, 1965b,
1965c); Wallach and Kogan (1965); Pettigrew (1958);
and others who, by the 1950s and 1960s, had become
concerned with styles as representing an interface be-
tween w ork on cognition and work on personality .
What interested these researchers then, and contempo-
rary researchers now, about the construct of cognitive
styles? Styles are of interest for several reasons.
r idg ing Cog ni t ion and Personal ity
First, cognitive styles represent a bridge between what
might seem to be two fair ly distinct areas o f psychologi-
cal investigation: cognition and personality. Although
these two areas often have seemed to represent rather
distinct areas of selfhood, there have long been inves-
tigators, such as Cattell (1971) and Royce (1973),
who have tried to link them into a single encompassing
theory. In the case of Cattell, one of the factors in the
16 personality-factor model (Factor B) is an intelligence
factor. And in the widely accepted Big Five theory of
personality (Costa McC rae, 1992; Digman, 1990;
McC rae, 1996; Mc Crae Costa, 1987; Pea body Gold-
berg, 1989), one of the factors, Openness to Experience,
has been found to be Closely linked with intelligence.
Moreover, a single psychometric method has been used
to investigate both cognition and intelligence, leading
some investigators, such as Eysenck (1982; Eysenck
Eysenck, 1975), Vernon (1973), and Messick (1984), as
well as Cattell, Royce, and many others, to be active in
both fields.
Many other approaches have been use d to l ink person-
ality and aspects of cognition, especially intelligence
(Baron, 1982; Sak lofske Zeidner, 1995; Sternb erg
Ruzgis, 1994), including constructs of social intelligence
(Can tor Kihlstr om, 1987a, 1987b; Ford Tisak, 1983;
Keating, 1978), practical intelligence (Sternbe rg, 1985,
1996; Sternbe rg Wagner, 1986; Sternberg , Wagner,
Williams, Horvath, 1995), and emotion al intelligence
(Gole man, 1995; Sal ove y Mayer, 1990).Clearly, psy-
chologists see a need to link personality with cognition.
We suggest that cognitive styles have provided and can
continue to provide one viable way of doing so.
Cogni t ive Sty les Go to School
Second, as suggested in the introductory paragraphs of
this article, cognitive styles seem to have important impli-
cations for educational theory and practice (Dunn,
Beau dry, Klava s, 1989; Fisc her Fischer, 1979; Gri-
gore nko Sternberg , 1997; Hunt, 1979; Kaga n, 1965c;
Me ssick , 1984; Renz ulli Smith, 1978; Sternberg, 1990,
1994a, 1997; Sternberg Grig oren ko, 1993, 1995; Wal-
lach Kogan, 1965), an idea to whic h we return later
on. Indeed, one of the initial motivations for studying
styles, and which is still a motivation (Grigorenko
Sternberg, 1997), was the idea that perhaps prediction of
achievement could be improved by adding measures of
styles to measures of abilities as predictors of perfor-
mance. For example, perhaps impulsive children would
show low er performance in school because of their ten-
dency not to be careful in their work, above and bey ond
any question of their intellectual abilities (Kagan, 1965c,
1966). Or perhaps children w ho coul d not separate them-
selves from their perceptual field or elements o f this field
from each other (so-called field-dependent children)
would suffer when they were learning to read (Witkin,
1975).
July 1997 Am erican Psycho logist 701
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9739634_Cognitive_control_principles_and_perceptual_behavior?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229691181_The_Measurement_and_Correlates_of_Category_Width_as_a_Cognitive_Variable?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232552745_Abilities_Their_Structure_Growth_and_Action?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243777522_The_Nature_of_Cognitive_Styles_Problems_and_Promise_in_Educational_Practice?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233896295_Emotional_Intelligence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233896295_Emotional_Intelligence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229691181_The_Measurement_and_Correlates_of_Category_Width_as_a_Cognitive_Variable?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9739634_Cognitive_control_principles_and_perceptual_behavior?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243777522_The_Nature_of_Cognitive_Styles_Problems_and_Promise_in_Educational_Practice?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232552745_Abilities_Their_Structure_Growth_and_Action?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==7/24/2019 Are cognitive styles still in style?
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Our own work in the area of cognit ive styles has been
motivated by educational considerat ions. For example,
the daughter of Robert J . Sternberg would occasionally
make sug gest ions to her teacher as to answers to problem s
that were a l ternat ives to the answers the teacher presented
in class. Over the course of the year, the teacher com-
plained to the child 's parents about wh at the teacher per-
ceived as the child 's disruptive behavior in c lass, and the
teacher ' s opinion of the child seem ed to decl ine mono ton-
ical ly. This experience made Sternberg wonder whether
students were devalued in the eyes of their teachers when
the students ' s tyles did not m atch the teachers ' s tyles, an
idea consistent with some past h ypotheses and data (see,
e .g. , Cronb ach Snow, 1977; Dun n Dunn, 1978;
Hym an Rosoff, 1984),
Such incidents and, potentia l ly, the valuing o f students
who m atch rather than mism atch teachers ' s tyles are not
l imited to the e lementary school level . When Sternberg
was a college freshman, his fi rst psycholo gy examination
required a series of short essays. Sternberg (mistakenly)
viewed the test ing si tuat ion as one in wh ich creat ive ideas
wou ld be valued. In fact , he foun d out when the examina-
t ion was re turned--and he had rece ived a composi te
score of 3 out of 1 0-- tha t the way each essay had been
scored was on a 10-point scale: The professor had 10
points he wanted the students to make, and the score out
of 10 was the number of the professor 's points that a
given student made. Whatever the professor may have
valued, i t was not students who wanted to come up with
their own ideas in that exam.
ogn i t i v e S t y le s on t he Job
Cognit ive styles have implicat ions no t only for schooling
but a lso for occupational choice and performan ce (Clapp,
1993; Gul, 1992; Holland, 1973; Huelsman, 1983; Jacob-
son, 1993; Kolb, 1974; Mye rs McC aulley, 1985; Stern-
berg, 1997). Suppose it were the case, as hypothesized
above, that teachers tend to reward certa in styles but not
other styles in their c lassrooms, effect ively confounding
styles with achievement. Suppose, moreover, that the
styles valued in the c lassroom do not correspond part icu-
larly or even at a l l well with the styles actual ly valued
in the jobs for which the c lassroom instruct ion is prepara-
tory. What would be the results?
Conceivably, psychologists might find that those who
are encouraged to go into a fie ld are those who have
styles compatible w ith the c lassroom preparat ion for the
job but not with the job i tse lf. Alternat ively, some of
those whomight have s ty les qui te compat ib le wi th the
job might be d i scouraged f rom going in to the job because
of less than laudatory performan ce in the c lassroom prep-
arat ion for the job.
We believe that this phenomenon is probably wide-
spread. Those who have styles compatible w ith the kinds
of learning required for mult iple-choice tests , for exam-
ple , may not have styles compatible with the kinds of
performance required on a job for which the courses
using the mult iple-choice tests are supposedly prepara-
tory. For example, psychologists need to come up with
ideas for theories, experiments, and therapy, but they
rarely, i f ever, have to m emorize books or lectures.
In sum, there are a t least three major motivat ions for
studying cognit ive styles: providing a l ink between cogni-
t ion and personali ty; understanding, predict ing, and im-
proving educational achievement; and improving voca-
t ional select ion, guidance, and, possibly, placement. Wh at
kinds of wo rk have researchers done to understand cogni-
t ive styles in these and other contexts?
ogn.itive Styles: A Capsule Review of
e L terature
We cannot possibly su mm arize in a short art ic le the ful l
range of work that has been done on cognit ive styles.
Fortunately, other works are available that provide re la-
t ively complete reviews (e .g. , Globerson Zelniker,
1984; Goldstein Blackman , 1978; Grigoren ko Stem-
berg, 1995; Ka gan Kog an, 1970; Ko gan, 1973, 1976,
1983; Ko gan Saarni, 1990; Messick , 1976, 1984;
Miller, 1991; Rid ing Cheem a, 1991; Wi tkin
Goodenough, 1981).
First , we describe the cri teria by which we evaluate
the various theories o f styles. Then, we classify much of
the extant wor k on cognit ive styles as fa l l ing into three
major categories, which we refer to as cognit ion-
centered, personali ty-centered, and act ivi ty-centered ap-
proache s, respectively (Gr igore nko Sternberg, 1995).
We briefly summarize some of the work that fa l ls under
each of these three approaches, placing mo re o f our a t ten-
t ion on the first two o f these approaches.
r i te r ia f o r Eva l uat i on o f Theo r ie s o f S t y le s
In discussing wo rk on cognit ive styles, we l imit ourselves
to style constructs that have been operat ionalized. In
702 July 1997 Am erican Psychologist
7/24/2019 Are cognitive styles still in style?
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othe r words , by th i s c r i t e r ion , t he re i s a t l eas t one mea-
sure of t he s ty l e o r s ty l e s pos i t ed by a g iven theory .
W e a r e p a r t i c u l a r ly i n t e r e s t e d in t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e
r e se a r c h p r o g r a m s h a v e m e t t h e f o l l o w i n g f iv e a d d i ti o n a l
c r i te r i a , t w o o f w h i c h a r e q u a l i ta t iv e a n d t h r e e o f w h i c h
a re quant i t a t ive :
1. theoretical spec ification --the positing o f a reasonably com-
plete, well-specified, and internally consistent theory of styles
that makes connection with extan t psychological theory;
2. internal validity--a demonstration by factor analysis or
some other metho d of internal analysis that the underlying struc-
ture of the item o r subtest data is as predicted b y the theory;
3. convergent external va lidi ty-- a demonstration that the mea-
sures of styles correlate with other measures with which, in
theory, they should correlate;
4. discriminant external validity--a demonstration that the
measures of styles do not correlate with other measures with
which, in theory, they should not correlate; and
5. heuristic generativity--the extent to which the theory has
spawned and continues to spawn psychological research and,
ideally, practical application.
To some ex ten t , heur i s t i c gene ra t iv i ty i s a func t ion o f t he
ex ten t t o which a theory has sa t i s f i ed the f i r s t four c r i t e -
r i a . B u t i t is a l so a f u n c t i o n o f t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h a n
i d e a sp a r k s i n t e r es t i n p o t e n t i al f o l l o w e r s o f a t h e o r y a n d
i s a g g r e s s i v e ly m a r k e t e d t o t h e c o n su m e r p u b l i c.
T h e C o g n i t io n C e n t e r ed p p r o a c h
W o r k i n t h i s t r a d i t i o n i s b a se d l o o se l y o n a d e f i n i t i o n
of cogn i t ive s ty l e s a s t h e cha rac t e r i s ti c , se l f -cons i s t en t
m o d e s o f f u n c t i o n i n g w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s sh o w i n t h e i r
p e r c e p t u a l a n d i n te l l e c tu a l a c t i v i t i e s ( W i t k i n , O l t m a n ,
Rask in , & Karp , 1971 , p . 3 ) . The s ty l e s i n th i s ca t ego ry
most c lose ly re semble ab i l i t i e s and , l i ke ab i l i t i e s , have
o f t e n b e e n m e a s u r e d b y t e s t s o f m a x i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e
w i th r i g h t a n d w r o n g a n sw e rs . M u c h o f t he w o r k
in th i s t r ad i t i on a rose a s a re su l t o f a pe rce ived need to
u n d e r s t a n d q u a l i t at i v e m o d e s o f c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g a n d
n o t j u s t t o o b t a i n a n o v e r a l l q u a n t it a ti v e a s se s sm e n t o f
c o g n i t iv e f u n c t i o n i n g , su c h a s I Q .
M a n y s t y l e s h a v e b e e n p r o p o se d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f th e
c o g n i t i v e a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s , a s
sh o w n i n T a b l e 1 . H e r e , w e d i s c u s s o n l y t h e t w o s t y l e s
t h a t h a v e g e n e r a t e d t h e m o s t t h e o r y a n d r e se a r c h , a s w e l l
a s i n te r e s t: r e f l e c t i o n - i m p u l s i v i t y a n d f i e l d d e p e n d e n c e -
i n d e p e n d e n c e .
Re f lec l lon im puls iv ity . This p o la r i ty o f s ty l e s i s
so m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d t o a s conceptual t empo. Re f l ec t i v i t y
i s t he t endency to con s ide r and re f l ec t on a l t e rna t ive so lu-
t ion poss ib i l i t i e s . Ref l ec t ive ind iv idua l s pause to th ink
b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g a t a sk o r m a k i n g a d e c i s i o n a n d sp e n d
t ime eva lua t ing the i r op t ions . Converse ly , impul s i v i t y is
t h e t e n d e n c y t o r e sp o n d i m p u l s i v e l y w i t h o u t su f f i c i e n t
f o r e t h o u g h t . I m p u l s i v e i n d i v i d u a ls q u i c k l y o f f e r so l u t i o n s
t o p r o b l e m s , w i t h o u t su f f i c i e n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e p r o b -
a b l e a c c u r a c y o f t h e so l u t i o n s .
C o n c e p t u a l t e m p o a p p e a r s t o b e a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e
source o f i nd iv idua l d i f fe ren ces (Kagan , 1958, 1965a ,
1965b , 1965c , 1966). T here i s d i sagreem ent , however , a s
t o w h e t h e r i m p u l s i v i t y a n d r e fl e c ti v it y , a s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d
h e r e , a p p l y o n l y t o s i t u a t io n s o f h i g h r e sp o n se u n c e r t a i n t y
( K a g a n & M e sse r , 1 9 75 ) o r t o a w a y o f a p p r o a c h i n g l i f e
in gene ra l (Block , Block , & Har r ing ton , 1974) . Opera -
t io n a l ly , r e f l e c t i v i t y - i m p u l s i v i t y ty p i c a l l y h a s b e e n m e a -
su r e d b y p a t t er n s o f r e sp o n se l a t e n ci e s a n d e r r o r s o n
re l a t ive ly s imple , h igh ly speeded t a sks . In pa r t i cu la r , a
r e f l e c t i v e p e r so n w i l l h a v e a l o n g e r r e sp o n se t i m e w i t h
f e w e r e r r o r s , w h e r e a s a n i m p u l s i v e p e r so n w i l l h a v e a
sh o r t e r r e sp o n se t i m e w i t h m o r e e r r o r s . T h e i n s t r u m e n t
m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u se d t o m e a su r e t h e c o n s t r u c t h a s b e e n
the Match ing Fami l i a r F igures Tes t (M FFT ; But t e r , 1979;
Das , 1983; K agan , 1966; bu t see Block e t a l. , 1974) . In
t h e M F F T , a p e r so n i s r e q u i r e d t o s e l e c t f r o m a m o n g
seve ra l a l t e rna t ives the one tha t exac t ly ma tches a s t an-
d a r d . T h e n u m b e r o f e r r o r s a n d t h e t i m e t o c o m p l e t e t h e
t e s t a r e m e a su r e d , a n d t h e m e d i a n p o i n t i s v i e w e d a s a
c u t o f f f o r c a t e g o r i z in g i n d i v i d u a l s . P e o p l e w i t h f a s t e r
r e sp o n se t i m e s a n d r e l a t iv e l y m o r e e r r o r s a r e c a l l e d im-
pul s i ve ; t h o se w i t h l o n g e r r e sp o n se t i m e s a n d l o n g e r la -
t enc ie s a re ca l l ed ref lect ive . Two o t h e r g r o u p s o f l e s s
i n t e r e st f o r t h e p r e se n t p u r p o se s a r e t h o se w h o a r e q u i c k
( sh o r te r r e sp o n se t i m e s w i t h f e w e r e r ro r s ) a n d t h o se w h o
are s low ( l o n g e r r e sp o n se t i m e s w i t h m o r e e r r o r s ; E sk a &
Black, 1971).
M a n y e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s a b o u t c o n c e p t u a l t e m p o h a v e
e m e r g e d . F o r e x a m p l e , i m p u l s i v i t y a s a c o g n i t i v e s t y l e
a p p e a r s t o b e d i f f e r e n t f r o m i m p u l s i v e n e s s a s a p e r so n a l -
i t y t r a i t (G low, Lange , G low, & Barne t t , 1983) , a t l eas t
a s t h e l a t te r is m e a su r e d b y t h e E y se n c k P e r so n a l i t y Q u e s -
t i o n n a i r e ( E y se n c k & E y se n c k , 1 9 7 5 ). F o r e x a m p l e , c h i l -
d r e n w i t h a n i m p u l s i v e s ty l e , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h o se w i t h a
r e f le c t iv e s t y le , m a k e m o r e e r r o r s i n r e a d i n g p r o se , m a k e
m o r e e r r o r s o f c o m m i s s i o n o n s e r ia l - re c a l l t a sk s , a n d
a r e m o r e l i k e ly t o o f f e r i n c o r r e c t so l u t i o n s o n i n d u c t iv e -
r e a so n i n g p r o b l e m s a n d v i su a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t a sk s
(S tah l , E r i cks on , & Ra ym an, 1986) . Ref l ec t ive peop le
t e n d t o m a k e f e w e r e r r o r s i n w o r d - r e c o g n i t i o n , s e r i a l -
l ea rn ing , and induc t ive - reasoning t e s t s (Ze ln ike r & Op-
penhe imer , 1973) . Impul s ive ind iv idua l s t end to have
m i n i m a l a n x i e t y a b o u t c o m m i t t i n g e r ro r s , a n o r i e n t a t i o n
t o w a r d q u i c k su c c e s s r a t h e r t h a n a v o i d i n g f a i l u r e , r e l a -
t i v el y lo w p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d a r d s , l o w m o t i v a t io n t o m a s -
t e r t a sks , and l i t t l e a t t en t ion in moni tor ing of s t imul i
(Kagan , 1966; Messe r , 1970; Paul sen , 1978) .
Fie ld dependence independence . T h i s p o l a r
c o n s t r u c t , g e n e r a l ly a s so c i a t e d w i t h W i t l d n e t a l . ( 1 9 6 2 )
a n d a l s o k n o w n a s psychologica l d i f f e ren t ia t ion re fe r s
t o t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a p e r so n i s d e p e n d e n t v e r su s i n d e -
p e n d e n t o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e su r r o u n d i n g p e r c e p t u a l
f i el d . T h e t w o p r i n c i p a l m e a su r e s o f p sy c h o l o g i c a l d i f f e r-
e n t i a t io n a r e t h e R o d a n d F r a m e T e st ( R F T ) a n d t h e E m -
b e d d e d F i g u r e s T e s t ( E F T ) . I n t h e R F T ( W i t k i n , 1 9 6 4 ;
Wi t ldn e t a l . , 1962) , i nd iv idua l s must i gnore a v i sua l
contex t , a pos tura l con tex t , o r bo th to loca t e a t rue ve r t i -
ca l . In the EFT (Wi t ldn e t a l . , 1971) , i nd iv idua l s must
l o c a t e a p r e v i o u s l y s e e n s i m p l e f i g u r e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t
o f a l a r ge r , m o r e c o m p l e x f i g u r e t h a t h a s b e e n p u r p o se -
f u l l y d e s i g n e d t o e m b e d a n d o b sc u r e t h e s i m p l e f i g u r e.
Ju l y 1 9 9 7 A m e r i c a n P sy c h o l o g i s t 7 0 3
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/22490906_Reflection-Impulsivity_and_Level_of_Maturity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/22490906_Reflection-Impulsivity_and_Level_of_Maturity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/17282712_Reflection-Impulsivity_The_Generality_and_Dynamics_of_Conceptual_Tempo?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247637355_The_Effect_of_Anxiety_over_Intellectual_Performance_on_Reflection-Impulsivity_in_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==7/24/2019 Are cognitive styles still in style?
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T a b l e
Styles in the Cognition C enteredApproach
Style Reference efin i t ion
Abst rac t versus concre te
C a t e g o r y w i d t h
C o g n i t i v e c o m p l e x it y
Compar tmenta l iza t ion
Conceptua l d i f fe ren t ia t ion
Conceptua l in tegra t ion
Conceptua l s ty le
Conceptua l tempo
Const r ic ted versus f lex ib le
control
F ie ld dependence versus
independence
Scann ing
Tolerance for unreal ist ic
e x p e r i e n c e s
Ha r ve y , Hu n t , S ch r o d e r ( 1 9 6 1 )
Pet t ig rew (1958)
G a r d n e r S c h o e n ( 1 9 6 2 }
M e ss i ck K o g a n ( 1 9 6 3 )
G a r d n e r S c h o e n ( 1 9 6 2 )
Ha r ve y e t a l . ( 1 9 6 1 )
K a g a n , M o ss , S ig e l ( 1 9 6 3 )
K a g a n (1 9 5 8 , 1 9 6 6 )
S m i t h K le in ( 1 9 5 3 )
W i t k i n ( 1 9 6 4 )
G a r d n e r M o r i a r t y ( 1 9 6 8 )
K le in Sch les inger (1951 )
P re fe r red leve l o f abs t rac t ion
De g r e e t o wh i ch p e o p le a c t o n a wa r e n e ss o f d i ff e re n ce s
T e n d e n cy t o m a ke m o r e a n d m o r e co m p le x a sso c ia t io n s
between groups
Tendency to compar tmenta l ize ideas in to d iscre te ca tegor ies
Spontaneous d i f fe ren t ia t ion o f he te rogeneous i tems in to
r e la t e d g r o u p s
Rela t ing o f par ts to each o ther and to p r io r concepts
Pre fe rence fo r ana ly t ica l ve rsus re la tiona l o rga n iza t ion o f
informat ion
Tendency to cons ider and re f lec t on a l te rna t ive so lu t ion
versus tendency to respond impu ls ive ly
Tendency to d is regard o ne o f two conf l i c ting cues
Degree o f dependence on the s t ruc tu re o f the p reva i l ing
visual f ie ld
E x t e n t t o wh i ch a n i n d i v i d u a l a t te m p t s t o ve r i f y h i s o r h e r
judgments
Person 's read iness to accept o r repor t exper iences a t
va r i a n ce w i t h wh a t h e o r sh e kn o ws t o b e t r u e
Because the concept of psychological differentiation
was originated to overcome the incompleteness of con-
ventional intelligence tests as bases for explaining indi-
vidual differences in cognition, researchers have at-
tempted to find the relation between conventional mea-
sures of intelligence and field dependence-independence.
Witkin (1975) claimed that research showed the indepen-
dence of the construct from verbal skills as tapped by
the Wechsler scales. Moreover, Eagle, Goldberger, and
Breitman (1969) found no difference between groups in
ability to acquire new information. However, the story
changes with spatial aspects of abilities. Witkin (1975)
himself suggested that field independence is essent ially
identica l (p. 7) with the abilities required for the
Wechsler Block Design, Object Assembly, and Picture
Completion subtests. Cronbach and Snow (1977) sug-
gested that field dependence-independence adds nothing
to the concept
o f f l u i d b i l i t y
(Cattell, 1971),or the ability
to think flexibly and cope with novelty, and MacLeod,
Jackson, and Palmer (1986) used structural equation
modeling to argue that field independence is identical to
spatial ability. Goldstein and Blackman (1978), reviewing
20 studies, found consistent correlations between mea-
sures of field independence and both verbal and perfor-
mance aspects of intelligence. Thus, the evidence sug-
gests a close connection and perhaps an identity between
field independence and aspects of intelligence.
T h e P e r s o n a l i ty C e n t e r e d p p r o a c h
Whereas the styles produced by the cognition-centered
approach seem quite close to abilities, the styles produced
by the personality-centered approach seem closer to per-
sonality traits. Moreover, styles in this approach are
measured by typical-performance tests rather than by
maximum-performance tests, much as are personality
traits. We discuss two of the major theories based on this
approach: the theory of types associated with Jung (1923)
and the energic model associated with Gregorc (1979).
The
h e o ry o f t yp e s .
Jung (1923) proposed a the-
ory of psychological types, according to which individu-
als can be characterized as differing in terms of two
attitudes (extraversion and introversion), two perceptual
functions (intuition and sensing), and two judgment func-
tions (thinking and feeling). The atti tudes of extraversion
and introversion describe one's basic stance in dealing
with other people one encounters. Extraversion character-
izes those who are outgoing, with an interest in people
and the environment; introversion describes people
whose interests are more inwardly focused. Intuition and
sensing are used in Jung's typology to describe prefer-
ences in perceiving stimuli. An intuitive person tends to
perceive stimuli holistically and to concentrate on mean-
ing rather than details, whereas a sensing individual per-
ceives information realistically and precisely. Thinking
and feeling represent two distinct ways of judging or
understanding perceived stimuli. Judgments made in the
thinking mode tend to be logical, analytical, and imper-
sonal; those made in the feeling mode are usually based
on values rather than logic.
An extension of Jung's (1923) theory (Myers &
McCaulley, 1985; Myers & Myers, 1980) extended the
theory of types to include one more distinction, that be-
tween judgment and perception. According to this view,
704 July 1997 American Psychologist
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9280261_Some_Implications_of_Research_on_Cognitive_Style_for_Problems_of_Education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232552745_Abilities_Their_Structure_Growth_and_Action?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9280261_Some_Implications_of_Research_on_Cognitive_Style_for_Problems_of_Education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232552745_Abilities_Their_Structure_Growth_and_Action?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==7/24/2019 Are cognitive styles still in style?
7/14
t he re a re 16 type s of pe rson a l i ty s ty l e s re su l t i ng f ro m a l l
p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e f o u r d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s ,
e a c h o f w h i c h h a s t w o c a t e g o r ie s . F o r e x a m p l e , a s e n s i n g
t y p e w h o i s i n t r o v e r t e d a n d w h o p r e f e r s j u d g i n g w i t h
t h i n k i n g i s a s e ri o u s , q u i e t p e r so n w h o r e a c h e s su c c e s s b y
c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d t h o r o u g h n e s s . T h i s p e r so n i s p r a c ti c a l,
o rde r ly , ma t t e r -of - fac t , l og ica l , r ea l i s ti c , and depend able .
A n i n t u i t i v e e x t r a v e r t w h o p r e f e r s j u d g i n g w i t h f e e l i n g
i s so m e o n e w h o i s r e sp o n s i v e a n d r e sp o n s i b le . T h i s i n d i -
v i d u a l f e e l s r e al c o n c e r n f o r w h a t o t h e r s t h i n k a n d w a n t
a n d t r i e s t o h a n d l e t h i n g s w i t h r e g a r d f o r o t h e r p e o p l e ' s
fee l ings .
T h i s v i e w i s e m b o d i e d i n th e M B T I ( M y e rs & M c C a u l -
l ey , 1985) , a measure of s ty l e s t ha t has the appea rance
o f a s t a n d a r d p e r so n a l i ty i n v e n to r y . T h e m e a su r e h a s b e e n
w i d e l y u se d i n e d u c a t i o n a s w e l l a s i n b u s i n e s s, a l t h o u g h
i t s v a l i d i ty h a s b e e n c a l l e d i n t o s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n ( D r u c k -
man & Bjork , 1991 , 1994) . Desp i t e t hese re se rva t ions ,
t h e M B T I i s p r o b a b ly t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d m e a s u r e o f
s ty l e s t oday . Resea rche rs have shown s t a t i s t i ca l ly s ig -
n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a ti o n s o f s t y l e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e M B T I
w i t h t h e m a s t e r y o f a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e (Ehrman, 1994) ,
c r e a ti v e p e r f o r m a n c e o n t h e j o b ( J a c o b so n , i 9 9 3 ) , a n d
m a n y o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s ( c f . H a h n - R o l l i n s & M o n g e o n ,
1 98 8 ). T h e r e a l so h a v e b e e n a n u m b e r o f a t t e m p t s t o u se
t h e M B T I i n s c h o o l s e t t i n g s . F o r e x a m p l e , H u e l sm a n
( 1 9 8 3 ) f o u n d t h a t w h e r e a s p r e f e r r e d s t y le s i n l e a rn e r s
a r e f a i r l y e v e n l y d i s t ri b u t e d a m o n g p sy c h o l o g i c a l t y p e s ,
p r e f e r r e d s t y l e s in t e a c h i n g a r e n o t . T h o se t e a c h er s w h o
r e p o r t e d i n t u i t i v e - t h i n k i n g a n d i n t u i t i v e - f e e l i n g a s t h e
pre fe r red l ea rn ing s ty l e s o f t he i r s tudent s t ended them-
s e lv e s t o p r e f er t e a c h in g b y m e a n s o f s e n s i n g - t h i n k i n g
a n d s e n s i n g - f e e l i n g s t y le s . H u e l sm a n su g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s
l a c k o f c o n g r u i t y b e t w e e n t e a c h e r s ' a n d s t u d e n t s ' s t y l es
could be de t r imenta l t o t eache rs ' e f fec t iveness . However ,
L a w r e n c e ( 1 9 8 2 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t e x t r a v e r s i o n a n d s e n s i n g
( n o t i n tu i t i o n ) a re t h e m o s t c o m m o n p sy c h o l o g i c a l t y p e s
a m o n g c h i l d r e n i n s c h o o l .
Gregorc s energ ic mo de l .
Gregorc (1979 , 1984 ,
1 9 8 5 ) su g g e s t e d t h a t s t y l e s c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s
o f t w o b a s i c d i m e n s i o n s : u se o f sp a c e a n d u se o f t i m e .
Space re fe r s t o pe rcep tua l ca t egor i e s fo r acqui r ing and
e x p r e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a n d i s d i v i d e d i n t o c o n c r e t e ( o r
p h y s i c a l ) a n d a b s t r a c t ( o r m e t a p h o r i c a l ) sp a c e . T i m e i s
d i v i d e d i n to t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f o r d e r i n g f a c t s a n d
event s : sequent i a l ( i . e . , i n a s t ep-by-s t ep or b ranchl ike
m a n n e r ) a n d r a n d o m o r d e r i n g ( i .e . , i n a w e b l i k e o r sp i r a l
m a n n e r ) .
The Greg orc S ty l e De l in ea tor (Gregorc , 1982) c l a ss i -
f i e s i nd iv idua l s i n to four bas i c t ypes : conc re t e - sequent i a l
- - p e o p l e w h o f o c u s t h e i r a t t e n t i o n o n c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y
a n d p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s a n d v a l i d a t e i d e a s t h r o u g h t h e
s e ns e s; a b s t r a c t - s e q u e n t i a l - - p e o p l e w h o p r e fe r l og i c al
a n d sy n t h e t i c t h i n k i n g a n d v a l i d a t e i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h
p r e s e t f o r m u l a s ; a b s t r a c t - r a n d o m - - p e o p l e w h o t e n d
t o f o c u s t h e i r a tt e n t i o n o n t h e w o r l d o f f e e li n g a n d e m o -
t i o n a n d t o v a l i d a t e i d e a s t h r o u g h i n n e r g u i d a n c e ; a n d
c o n c r e t e - r a n d o m - - p e o p l e w h o p r e f e r i n t u i t i v e a n d i n -
s t i n c t i v e t h i n k i n g a n d w h o r e l y o n p e r so n a l p r o o f f o r
va l ida t ing ideas , r a re ly accep t ing ou t s ide au thor i ty .
T h e A c t i v i t y C e n t e r ed A p p r o a c h
A t h i r d a p p r o a c h t o s t y l e s i s c e n t e r e d o n t h e n o t i o n o f
s t y l es a s m e d i a t o r s o f v a r i o u s f o r m s o f a c t i v it i es t h a t m a y
a r i s e f r o m a sp e c t s o f c o g n i t i o n a n d p e r so n a l i t y . T h u s ,
t h i s a p p r o a c h a t t e m p t s t o m o v e t o w a r d w h a t i t s p r o p o -
n e n t s w o u l d v i e w a s a m o r e d y n a m i c c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n
o f s t y l es . T h i s a p p r o a c h i s d e sc r i b e d o n l y b r i e f l y b e c a u se
t h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h l e s s v a l i d a t i o n o f i t s t h e o r i e s t h a n
o f t h e t h e o r i e s d e sc r i b e d u n d e r t h e o t h e r t w o a p p r o a c h e s .
Learning s tyles
A m a j o r k i n d o f a c t i v i t y i n
w h i c h s t y le s h a v e t r a d i ti o n a l l y b e e n v i e w e d a s b e i n g o f
p o t e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e i s l e a r n i n g . T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f
theor i e s o f l ea rn ing s ty l e s , bu t t he s ty l e s a re conceptua l -
i z e d i n v e r y d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n t h e se t h e o r i e s.
A c c o r d i n g t o o n e a p p r o a c h ( R e n z u l l i & S m i t h , 1 9 7 8 ),
l e a r n in g s t y l e s a re v i e w e d a s c o r r e sp o n d i n g t o p u p i l s ' f i t
a n d c o m f o r t w i t h v a r i o u s m e t h o d s o f t e ac h i n g , i n c l u d i n g
pro jec t s , d r i l l and rec i t a t ion , pee r t each ing , d i scuss ion ,
t e a c h i n g g a m e s , i n d e p e n d e n t s t u d y , p r o g r a m m e d i n s t r u c -
t i o n , le c t u re , a n d s i m u l a t i o n . S c h m e c k ( 1 9 8 3 ) su g g e s t e d
d i f f e r e n t ia t i o n o f d e e p ( e m p h a s i z i n g d e p t h ) a n d
e l a b o r a t i v e ( e m p h a s i z i n g b r e a d t h ) l e a r n i n g s t y le s . A n -
o t h e r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n , t h a t o f D u n n a n d D u n n ( 1 9 7 8 ;
Du nn e t a l. , 1989) , uses fou r m a in ca t egor i e s : env i ron-
men ta l ( e .g . , sound and l i gh t ) , emot io na l (e .g ., mot iva t ion
and re spons ib i l i t y ) , soc io log ica l ( e .g . , pee rs and se l f ) ,
and phys ica l ( e .g . , pe rcep tua l and mobi l i t y ) .
T a k i n g a d i f f e r e n t v i e w p o i n t ,H o l l a n d ( 1 9 7 3 ) su g g e s t e d
t h a t j o b i n t e re s t s c a n b e p r e d i c t e d b y t h e w a y p e o p l e
se e k t o a c q u i r e a n d u se k n o w l e d g e : r e a l i st i c , i n v e s ti g a -
t ive , a r t i s t i c , soc i a l , en t e rpr i s ing , and convent iona l . Thi s
c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n h a s g e n e r a t e d m o r e r e se a r c h t h a n t h e
o the rs desc r ibe d in th i s sec t ion . In ye t ano the r v iew , Kolb
(1974 , 1978) ide n t i f i ed fou r type s of l ea rn ing s ty l e s based
o n t w o d i m e n s i o n s - - c o n v e r g i n g v e r su s d i v er g in g a n d
a s s i m i l a t i n g v e r s u s a c c o m m o d a t i n g - - a n d t h e s e f o u r
t y p e s y i e l d d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f l e a rn e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , c o n -
v e r g e rs p r e f e r h y p o t h e t i c a l - d e d u c t i v e t h i n k i n g , w h e r e a s
d ive rge rs p re fe r more imagina t ive and in tu i t i ve k inds of
th ink ing .
T e a c h i n g s ty les . S e v e r a l i n v e s ti g a t o r s h a v e n o t e d
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s t y l e s o f t e a c h i n g t o t h e e d u c a t i o n a l
p r o c e s s . F o r e x a m p l e , Jo y c e a n d H o d g e s ( 1 9 6 6 ) sug-
g e s t e d t h a t te a c h e r s w h o h a v e a w i d e r r a n g e o f t e a c h i n g
s t y le s a r e l i k e l y t o b e m o r e su c c e s s f u l t h a n a r e t h o se
w h o se r e p e r to i r e is m o r e l i m i t e d . H e n so n a n d B o r t h w i c k
(1984) s ugge s t ed s ix d i f fe ren t and spec i f i c ca t egor i e s o f
t each ing s ty l e s , namely , t a sk-or i en ted , coopera t ive p l an-
ne r , ch i ld -cen te red , sub jec t -cen te red , l ea rn ing-cen te red ,
a n d e m o t i o n a l l y e x c it i n g .
E v a lu a t io n o f T h e o r y a n d R e s ea rc h o n
C o g n i t iv e S t y l e s
W e c o n s i d e r h e r e a n e v a l u a t i o n o f e x t a n t t h e o r y a n d r e -
s e a r c h i n t e r m s o f t h e c r it e r ia d i s c u s se d a b o v e . W e l i m i t
o u r e v a l u a t i o n t o t h e c o g n i t i o n - c e n t e r e d a n d p e r so n a l i t y -
Ju l y 1 9 9 7 A m e r i c a n P sy c h o l o g i s t 7 0 5
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232455367_The_Type_Differentiation_Indicator_and_Adult_Foreign_Language_Learning_Success?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239555003_Making_Vocational_Choices_A_Theory_of_Career_Choices?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249702836_Instructional_Flexibility_Training?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249702836_Instructional_Flexibility_Training?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232455367_The_Type_Differentiation_Indicator_and_Adult_Foreign_Language_Learning_Success?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239555003_Making_Vocational_Choices_A_Theory_of_Career_Choices?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-f9b9a64c-2735-4621-a679-1c3ed2f8a15d&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzMjU2NDEyMjtBUzoxMDQ5MDgxODc1MDQ2NDhAMTQwMjAyMzQ2OTYyOQ==7/24/2019 Are cognitive styles still in style?
8/14
c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h e s b e c a u s e t h e r e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e
suf f i c i en t va l ida t ion of the ac t iv i ty -based approaches to
eva lua te them proper ly .
F i r s t , w i th rega rd to theore t i ca l spec i f i ca t ion , t he re -
s e a r c h u n d e r t h e c o g n i t i o n - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h h a s p r e -
s e n t e d i t s e lf a s a s e r i es o f r e s e a r c h p a r a d i g m s , w i t h t h e
r e l a t i o n s a m o n g t h e m u n c l e a r a n d n o c l e a r t h e o r e t i c a l
r e l a t i o n t o b r o a d e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i z i n g . A l t h o u g h
t h e r e w e r e n u m e r o u s s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g c o m p u t a t i o n o f
c o r r e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n t h e s t y l e m e a s u r e s a n d o t h e r k i n d s
o f m e a s u r e s , t h e b r o a d e n i n g e m p i r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f
t h e w o r k w a s n e v e r m a t c h e d b y a n e q u a l b r o a d e n i n g i n
the theore t i ca l g rounding for the en te rpr i s e .
T h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h u n d e r t h e p e r s o n a l i t y - c en t e r e d a p -
p r o a c h h a s y i e l d e d s o m e w h a t l a r g e r s c a l e t h e o r i e s , a l -
t h o u g h r e l a ti o n s w i t h m a i n s t r e a m p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o ri e s
a n d p a r a d i g m s s t i l l r e m a i n s o m e w h a t o b s c u r e . J u n g ' s
(1923) theory , a s mani fes t ed in the MBTI , i s about a s
b r o a d l y b a s e d a s a r e m o s t t h e o r i e s o f o t h e r k i n d s o f
psychologica l phenomena . Rea l i s t i ca l ly , people a re p rob-
a b l y n o t t y p e s , w h e t h e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t h e o r y o r
a n y o t h e r , b u t r a t h e r v a r y c o n t i n u o u s l y a n d s o m e w h a t
d i f f e r e n t ly as a f u n c t i o n o f d i v e r s e p e r s o n - s i t u a t i o n
in te rac t ions .
S e c o n d , c o n s i d e r i n t e r n a l v a l i d a t i o n , w h i c h a s s e s s e s
w h e t h e r e m p i r i c a l d a t a s u p p o r t t h e p r o p o s e d s t y l e s
a n d t h e i r p r o p o s e d i n t e r r e l a t i o n s . W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e
c o g n i t i o n - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h , b e c a u s e t h e t h e o r i e s p r o -
posed were gene ra l ly of ind iv idua l s ty l e s , i n t e rna l va l ida -
t ion recover ing a s t ruc ture o f the in t e r re l a t ions of va r ious
s t y l e s w i t h i n a g i v e n t h e o r y t o e a c h o t h e r w a s n e v e r
poss ible .
T h e r e h a s b e e n m o r e i n t e rn a l v a l i d a t io n o f t h e o r i e s i n
t h e p e r s o n a l i t y - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h . T h e p r o p o s e d f a c t o r
s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e M B T I a s w e l l a s o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y -
c e n t e r e d q u e s ti o n n a i r e s h a v e n o t b e e n w e l l s u p p o r t e d b y
emp i r i ca l f ind ings (Goldsm i th , 1985; Ke l l e r & Ho l l and ,
1 9 7 8 ; K i r t o n & D e C i a n t is , 1 9 8 6 ; M u l l i g a n & M a r t i n ,
1980; O 'B r ien , 1990) . Ross (1962) fou nd a m isma tch
b e t w e e n t h e M B T I s c a l e s a n d t h e f a c to r s r e su l t i n g f r o m
t h e a n a l y s i s h e p e r f o r m e d . J o n i a k a n d I s a k s e n ( 1 9 8 8 ) ,
a n a l y z i n g G r e g o r c ' s ( 1 9 8 2 ) q u e s t io n n a i r e , s h o w e d t h a t
a n i n s tr u m e n t w i t h o n l y t w o s u b s c a l e s ( S e q u e n t i a l -
R a n d o m a n d C o n c r e t e - A b s t r a c t ) b a s e d o n t w o o r t h o go -
n a l d i m e n s i o n s ( o r d e r i n g a n d p e r c e p t i o n ) w o u l d g i v e a
m o r e p a r s i m o n i o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f G r e g o r c ' s ( 1 9 7 9 )
s tyles .
Thi rd , cons ide r the i s sue of convergent va l id i ty . Wi th
r e g a r d t o t h e c o g n i t i o n - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h , t h e c o n v e r g e n t
v a l i d i t y o f v a r i o u s m e a s u r e s o f t h e s a m e s t y l e , s u c h a s
c o n c e p t u a l t e m p o o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , w a s
n e v e r a s h i g h a s o r i g i n a l l y h a d b e e n h o p e d . F o r e x a m p l e ,
i t w a s n o t c le a r t h a t t h e R F T a n d t h e E F T r e a l l y m e a s u r e d
t h e s a m e c o n s t r u c t , n o r t h a t c o n c e p t u a l t e m p o a s m e a -
s u r e d b y t h e E F T r e a l l y g e n e r a l i z e d m u c h b e y o n d s i m i l a r
k inds o f t a sks ou t s ide con s t ra ined s e t t ings ( s ee , e .g ., But -
ter , 1979; Mess ick, 1984).
C o n v e r g e n t - v a l i d i t y s t u d i e s o f e x t e r n a l c o r r e l a t e s o f
t h e p e r s o n a l i t y - c e n t e r e d m e a s u r e s y i e l d s o m e w h a t c o n -
fus ing f ind ings , t o the po in t tha t Mess ick (198 4) ob se rved
t h a t s o m e t i m e s q u i te d is p a r a te m e a s u r e s ar e u s e d to
as ses s os t ens ib ly the s am e s ty l e in d i f fe ren t s tud ies , whi l e
o n o t h e r o c c a s i o n s , h i g h l y s i m i l a r i n s t r u m e n t s s e r v e t o
t ap purp or t ed ly d i s t inc t s ty l e s (p . 59) . There a re som e
re la t ions . For example , Jon iak and I s aksen (1988) cor re -
l a t e d s c o r e s o n G r e g o r c ' s ( 1 9 8 2 ) m e a s u r e w i t h s c o r e s
o n t h e K i r t o n A d a p t a t i o n - I n n o v a t i o n I n v e n t o r y ( K i rt o n ,
1977) . K i r ton ' s (1976) th eory of s ty l e s spec i f i e s a b ipo la r
d i m e n s i o n w i t h t h e i n n o v a t o r a n d t h e a d a p t e r o n o p p o s i t e
e n d s . W h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a p r o b l e m , t h e a d a p t e r t u r n s
t o t r a d i t i o n a l o r c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s t o f i n d s o l u -
t ions ; i n cont ra s t , t he innova tor typ ica l ly rede f ines the
p r o b l e m a n d a p p r o a c h e s i t f r o m a n o v e l p e rs p e c ti v e . T h e
resu l t s i nd ica ted tha t Gr ego rc ' s (1982) s equent i a l s ty l is t s
w e r e a d a p t e r s o n K i r t o n ' s s c a l e a n d G r e g o r c ' s r a n d o m s
w e r e i n n o v a t o r s ; h o w ev e r , t h e c o n c r e t e - a b s t r a c t d i m e n -
s i o n s d i d n o t r e l a t e t o K i r t o n ' s m e a s u r e .
F o u r t h , c o n s i d e r d i s c r i m i n a n t v a l i d a t io n . W i t h r e s p e c t
t o t h e c o g n i t i o n - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h , t h e n o t i o n o f s t y l e
w a s i n t e n d e d t o b e u s e f u l a s a b r i d g e b e t w e e n c o g n i t i o n
and pe rsona l i ty , and for the no t ion to succeed , d i s c r imi -
n a n t v a l i d i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o m e a s u r e s o f c o g n i t i o n a n d
persona l i ty was e s sen t i a l . But the cogni t ive approach
y i e l d e d t a s k s t h a t a p p e a re d , o n t h e i r s u r f a ce , t o b e s o m e -
w h a t s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o n c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e l li g e n c e t es t s,
w i t h r i g h t a n d w r o n g a n s w e rs a n d h i g h e r a n d l o w e r
scores . In fac t , one po le o f the s ty l i s t i c cons t ruc t s a lmo s t
a l w a y s s e e m e d t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h m e a s u r e s o f a b i l i t i e s ,
a n d i n t h e c a s e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d if f e r e n ti a t io n , it w a s n o t
c l e a r h o w t h e m e a s u r e s r e a l l y d i s ti n g u i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s a t
a l l f r o m p e r f o r m a n c e - b a s e d a n d e s p e c i a l l y s p a t i a l m e a -
sures o f in t e l l i gence .
W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p e r s o n a l i ty - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h , i t
i s somew ha t d i f f i cu l t i n th i s approach to d i s t ingui sh be -
tween s ty l e s and pe rson a l i ty t ra i ts . More c once ptua l c l a r -
i t y is p r o b a b l y n e e d e d r e g a r d i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n
t h e t w o , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o d o m a i n g e n e r a l i ty v e r-
sus spec i f i c i ty and t ra i t l i ke ve rsus s t a t e l ike prope r t i e s .
P s y c h o l o g i s t s n e e d t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e e x t e n t t o
w h i c h s t y l e s c h a n g e o v e r t i m e a n d e v e n o v e r p a r t i c u l a r
s i tua t ions . A t p resen t , t he d i s t inc t ion be tween s ty l e s and
t r ai t s r e m a i n s s o m e w h a t v a g u e .
F i f th , cons ide r heur i s t i c gene ra t iv i ty . Wi th rega rd to
t h e c o g n i t i o n - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h , s o m e o f t h e t h e o r i e s
w e r e g e n e r a t i v e o f a w i d e b o d y o f r e s e a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y
t h e t h e o r ie s o f c o n c e p t u a l t e m p o a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i f -
f e r e n ti a ti o n . B u t m o s t o f t h e t h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h o n t h e
c o g n i t i o n - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h i s r a t h e r o l d , a n d a l t h o u g h
t h e r e w e r e s o m e p r o g r a m s o f r e s e a r c h i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s t o
resurrect i t (e .g. , Baron, 1979; Cooper, 1976; Day, 1970;
H o c k , G o r d o n , & M a r c u s , 1 9 7 4 ) , t h e s e r e s e a r c h p r o -
g r a m s n e v e r r e a ll y c a u g h t o n w i t h t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l p u b -
l ic , a n d t h e y r e c e d e d , a l t h o u g h n e v e r t o t a l l y d i s a p p e a r ed ,
a f t e r r a t h e r l i m i t e d p e r io d s o f t i m e , p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e
o f s o m e o f t h e v a l i d i t y i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e .
A l t h o u g h p e r s o n a l i t y - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h e s h a v e b e e n
w i d e l y u s e d , t h e y , t o o , h a v e f a i l e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s t o
g e n e r a t e m u c h r e s e a r c h i n m a i n s t r e a m p s y c h o l o g y o r e d -
7 0 6 J u l y 1 9 97 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t
7/24/2019 Are cognitive styles still in style?
9/14
u c a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y o u t s i d e t h e c i r c l e o f i n d i v i d u a l s w h o
p r o d u c e o r a l r e a d y a r e a d h e r e n t s t o t he m o d e l s . A l t h o u g h
o u r e x p e r i e n c e s u g g e s t s t h e r e a r e l a r g e n u m b e r s o f a d h e r -
e n t s, t h e y s e e m t o b e s w a y e d m o r e b y p e r s o n a l p e r c e i v e d
s u c c e s s e s w i t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o r u n r e f e r e e d p u b l i s h e d
o r u n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t s o f o t h e r s r e g a rd i n g s u c c e s s e s. F o r
e x a m p l e , D r u c k m a n a n d B j o r k ( 1 9 9 1 , 1 9 9 4 ) a rg u e d t h a t
t h e e x t a n t l it e r a tu r e d o e s n o t s u p p o r t u s e o f t h e M B T I
i n j o b c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d p l a c e m e n t .
A Mental Self Government Approach
W e h a v e p r o p o s e d a n a p p r o a c h t o s t y le s th a t w e b e l i e v e
m a y h a v e s o m e m e r i t a s a n a l te r n a ti v e to s o m e o f t he
t r a d it i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . T h e a p p r o a c h i s
f o r t h e e l u c i d a t i o n o f t h i n k i n g s t y l e s a n d i s c a l l e d t h e
t heory o f men ta l se l f governm ent
( S t e r n b e r g , 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 0 ,
1994a , 1994b , 1997) .
T h e T h e o r y
T h e b a s i c i d e a o f t h e t h e o r y i s t h a t t h e v a r i o u s s t y l e s o f
g o v e r n m e n t th a t a r e s e e n i n th e w o r l d m a y b e , a t s o m e
l e v e l , e x t e r n a l r e f l e c t i o n s o f t h e s t y l e s t h a t c a n b e f o u n d
i n t h e m i n d . T h u s , t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s t y l e s o f t h o u g h t ,
o n e c a n l o o k a t a s p e c t s o f g o v e r n m e n t f o r a s e n s e o f
w h a t i s i n t e r n a l l y ( a s w e l l a s e x t e r n a l l y ) p o s s ib l e .
T h e p r o p o s e d t h e o r y i s a n o m o t h e t i c a n d c o n t i n u o u s
o n e : E v e r y o n e p o s s e s s e s e v e r y s t y le t o s o m e d e g r e e , a n d
w h a t d i f f e r s a c r o s s in d i v i d u a l s i s s t r e n g t h o f p r e f e r e n c e s
a n d t h e k i n d s o f t a s k s a n d s i t u a t i o n s t h a t e v o k e v a r i o u s
p r e f e r e n c e s . W e s u s p e c t t h a t n o n e o f t h e p a s t th e o r i s t s
h a v e e v e r v i e w e d s t y l e s a s p u r e l y i d i o g r a p h i c a n d d i s -
c r e t e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e t h e o r i s t s d o n o t a r g u e t h a t
e v e r y o n e h a s w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t st y le s a n d t h a t e i t h e r p e o p l e
h a v e a g i v e n s t y l e o r t h e y d o n t . E v e n s t u d i e s l a b e l i n g
ch i ld ren a s , s ay , impuls ive o r reflective h a v e a s s i g n e d
l a b e l s o n t h e b a s e s o f d i s c r e t e c u t o f f s a s s i g n e d t o v a l u e s
o n c o n t i n u o u s n u m e r i c a l s c a l e s . A n d w e d o u b t a n y o n e
w o u l d h a v e a r g u e d t h a t r e f l e c t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s n e v e r a c t
i m p u l s i v e l y , o r v i c e v e r s a . R a t h e r , t h e d i s c r e t e c a t e g o r i e s
w e r e s i m p l if i c a ti o n s f o r p u r p o s e s o f r e s e a r c h .
F u n c tio n s o f m e n t a l s e l f g o v e r n m e n t . Jus t a s
g o v e r n m e n t s c a r r y o u t l e g i sl a t iv e , e x e c u t i v e , a n d j u d i c i a l
f u n c t i o n s , s o d o e s t h e m i n d . T h e
legislative
s t y l e c h a r a c -
t e r iz e s p e o p l e w h o e n j o y c r e a ti n g a n d f o r m u l a t i n g . S u c h
i n d i v i d u a l s l i k e t o c r e a t e t h e i r o w n r u l e s , d o t h i n g s i n
t h e i r o w n w a y , a n d b u i l d t h e i r o w n s t r u c tu r e s w h e n d e c i d -
i n g h o w t o a p p r o a c h a p r o b l e m . T h e y p r e f e r t a sk s t h a t
a r e n o t p r e s t r u c t u r e d o r p r e f a b r i c a t ed . T h e
execut ive
s ty le
c h a r a c t e r iz e s p e o p l e w h o a r e i m p l e m e n t e r s . T h e y p r e f e r
t o f o l l o w r u l e s , a n d t h e y o f t e n r e l y o n e x i s t i n g m e t h o d s
t o m a s t e r a s i t u a t i o n . T h e y p r e f e r t h a t a c t i v i t ie s b e d e f i n e d
a n d s t r u c tu r e d f o r t h e m . T h e
j ud ic ia l
s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i z e s
p e o p l e w h o l i k e t o e v a l u a t e r u l e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s ; w h o
l i k e t o j u d g e t h i n g s ; a n d w h o l i k e t a s k s in w h i c h t h e y
a n a l y z e a n d e v a l u a t e e x i s t i n g r u l e s , w a y s , a n d i d e a s .
F o r m s o f m e n t a l s e l f g o v e r n m e n t . here are
f o u r m a i n f o r m s o f m e n t a l s e lf - g o v e r n m e n t . T h e
monar
chic s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o l i k e t o f o c u s o n
o n e t a s k o r a s p e c t o f th a t t a s k u n t i l i t i s c o m p l e t e d . P e o p l e
w i t h a p r i m a r i l y m o n a r c h i c s t y l e t e n d t o f o c u s s i n g l e -
m i n d e d l y o n o n e g o a l o r n e e d a t a t i m e . T h e
hierarchic
s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o a l l o w f o r m u l t i p l e
g o a l s , e a c h o f w h i c h m a y b e g i v e n a d i f f e r e n t p r i o r i t y .
P e o p l e w i t h a p r i m a r i l y h i e r a r c h i c s t y l e e n j o y d e a l i n g
w i t h m a n y g o a l s , a l t h o u g h t h e y r e c o g n i z e t h a t s o m e g o a l s
a r e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n o t h e r s ; t h e y t e n d t o s e t p r i o r i t i e s
a n d t o b e s y s t e m a ti c i n t h e i r a p p r o a c h t o s o l v i n g p r o b -
l e m s . T h e
oligarchic
s t y le c h a r a c t e r iz e s p e o p l e w h o a l l o w
f o r m u l t i p l e g o a l s , a l l o f w h i c h a r e r o u g h l y e q u a l i n
i m p o r t a n c e . P e o p l e w i t h a p r i m a r i l y o l i g a r c h i c s t y l e l i k e
t o d o m u l t i p l e t h i n g s w i t h i n t h e s a m e t i m e f r a m e b u t
h a v e d i f f i c u l t y s e t t i n g p r i o r i t i e s f o r g e t t i n g t h e t h i n g s
d o n e . T h e
anarchic
s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o
d o n o t l ik e t o b e t i e d d o w n t o s y s t e m s , r u l e s , o r p a r t i c u l a r
a p p r o a c h e s t o p r o b l e m s . O f t e n , t h e y o p p o s e e x i s t i n g s y s -
t e m s , a l t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n f a v o r o f a n y c l e a r ly
s p e c i f i e d a l t e r n a t i v e . T h e y t e n d t o t a k e a r a n d o m a p -
p r o a c h t o p r o b l e m s , t h e r e b y s o m e t i m e s d r a w i n g c o n n e c -
t i o n s t h a t o th e r p e o p l e w o u l d n o t m a k e .
L e v e ls o f m e n t a l s e lF g o v e r n m e n t .
T h e r e a r e
t w o l e v e l s o f m e n t a l s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t . T h e
local
s t y l e
c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o p r e f e r t a s k s t h a t r e q u i r e
e n g a g e m e n t w i t h s p e c i f i c , c o n c r e t e d e t a i l s a n d t h a t o f t e n
r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e p r e c i s i o n i n e x e c u t i o n . T h e
global
s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o p r e f e r p r o b l e m s t h a t
a r e m o r e g e n e r a l i n n a t u r e a n d t h a t r e q u i r e a b s t r a c t t h i n k -
i n g . T h e g l o b a l p e r s o n l i k e s t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e a n d w o r k
i n t h e w o r l d o f i d e a s .
S c o p e o f m e n t a l s e lf g o v e r n m e n t .
T h e r e a r e
t w o s c o p e s o f m e n t a l s e l f -g o v e r n m e n t . T h e
in ternal
s t y l e
c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o p r e f e r t as k s t h a t a l l o w t h e m
t o w o r k a l o n e, i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f o t h e rs . T h e i r p r e f e r e n c e
i s g e n e r a l l y to b e o n t h e i r o w n . T h e
external
s t y l e c h a r a c -
t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o p r e f e r t a s k s t h a t a l l o w t h e m t o
w o r k w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e t h r o u g h i n t er a c t io n . T h e i r p r e f e r -
e n c e i s t o b e w i t h o t h e r s .
L e a n in g s o f m e n t a l s e l f g o v e r n m e n t . T h e r e
a r e t w o m a j o r l e a n i n g s o f m e n t a l s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t . T h e
l iberal
s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o l i k e to g o b e -
y o n d e x i s t i n g r u l e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s a n d w h o a l l o w s u b -
s t a n t i a l c h a n g e f r o m t h e w a y t h i n g s a r e c u r r e n t l y d o n e .
U n l i k e i n t h e l e g i s l a t iv e s t y l e , h o w e v e r , t h e n e w i d e a s d o
n o t h a v e to b e t h e i n d i v id u a l s o w n . T h e
conservat ive
s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o p r e f e r f a m i l i a r i t y i n
l i f e a n d t o f o l l o w t r a d i t i o n s . U n l i k e i n t h e e x e c u t i v e s t y l e ,
t h e y m a y l ik e t o c o m e u p w i t h t h e i r o w n i d e as , b u t t h e s e
i d e a s a r e g r o u n d e d i n e x i s ti n g a n d a c c e p t e d c u s t o m s .
S o m e g e n e r a l p r o p e r l i e s o f t h i n k i n g s ~ d e s .
W h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e , p e o p l e c h o o s e s t y l e s o f m a n a g i n g
t h e m s e l v e s w i t h w h i c h t h e y a r e c o m f o r t a b l e . T h u s , p e o -
p l e h a v e s e t s o f m o r e a n d l e s s p r e f e r r e d t h i n k i n g s t y l e s .
S t i l l , p e o p l e a r e a t l e a s t s o m e w h a t f l e x i b l e i n t h e i r u s e
o f s t y l e s a n d t r y , w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f s u c c e s s , t o
a d a p t t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e s t y l i st i c d e m a n d s o f a g i v e n s i tu a -
t i o n . T h e f l e x i b l e u s e o f t h e m i n d f o r m e n t a l s e l f - g o v e r n -
m e n t a c c o u n t s f o r th e v a r i e t y o f t h i n k i n g s t y l e s , a n d f l e x -
i b i l i ty m a y i t s e l f b e v i e w e d a s a s o r t o f m e t a s t y l e t h a t
a c t i v at e s , m o n i t o r s , a n d e v a l u a t e s p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e s , m u c h
J u l y 1 9 9 7 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t 7 0 7
7/24/2019 Are cognitive styles still in style?
10/14
a s m e t a c o m p o n e n t s ( h i g h e r o r d e r e x e c u t i v e p r o c e s s e s )
c o n t r o l t h e u s e o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n - p r o c e s s i n g c o m p o n e n t s
o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ( S t e r n b e r g , 1 9 8 5 ) .
S ty le s , l ike ab i l i t i e s , a re no t e tched in s tone a t b i r th .
T h e y a p p e a r t o b e l a r g e ly a f u n c t i o n o f a p e r s o n ' s i n te r a c -
t i o n s w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d t h e y c a n b e d e v e l o p e d
a n d s o c i a l i z e d . A n i n d i v i d u a l w i t h o n e s t y l e i n o n e t a s k
o r s i t u a t i o n m a y h a v e a d i f f e r e n t s t y l e i n a d i f f e r e n t t a s k
o r s i t u a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , s o m e i n d i v i d u a l s m a y h a v e o n e
p r e f e r r e d s t y l i s ti c p r o f i l e a t o n e s t a g e o f l i f e a n d a n o t h e r
p r e f e r r e d s t y l i s ti c p r o f i l e a t a n o t h e r s t a g e . S t y l e s a r e n o t
f ixed , the re fore , bu t f lu id .
T h i n k i n g s t y le s s e e m t o b e l a r g e ly a f u n c t i o n o f p e o -
p l e ' s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h t a s k s a n d s i t u a t io n s . C e r t a i n t a s k s
a r e m o r e o p t i m a l l y p e r f o r m e d w i t h c e r t a i n s t y l e s . F o r
e x a m p l e , c r e a t i v e w r i t i n g o r c o m p o s i n g m u s i c m i g h t
d r a w m o r e o n t h e l e g i s l a t i v e s t y l e , w h e r e a s m a n a g i n g a
p l a n t m i g h t c a p i t a l i z e o n t h e e x e c u t i v e s t y l e . R e w a r d i n g
s t u d e n t s f o r u s i n g p r e f e r r e d s t y l e s o n t h e s e t a s k s i s l i k e l y
t o l e a d t o g r e a t e r d i s p l a y o f th e r e w a r d e d s t y l e s . M o r e
g e n e r a l ly , a c h i l d ' s s o c i a l i z a t i o n i n t o a v a l u e s y s t e m w i l l
p r o b a b l y r e w a r d s o m e s t y l e s m o r e t h a n o t h e r s , l e a d i n g
t o p r e f e r e n c e s f o r t h e s e s t y l e s . B u t t h e f a c t t h a t s o m e
p e o p l e r e t a i n l e s s r e w a r d e d s t y l e s d e s p i t e e n v i r o n m e n t a l
p r e s s u r e s s u g g e s t s t h a t s o c i a l i z a t i o n d o e s n o t f u l l y a c -
c o u n t f o r t h e o r i g i n s o f s t y l e s a n d t h a t t h e r e m a y b e
p r e p r o g r a m m e d d i s p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e d i f f i c u l t t o c h a n g e .
s s e s s m e n t o f T h i n k i n g S t y te s
W e h a v e d e v e l o p e d a n u m b e r o f c o n v e r g i n g o p e r a ti o n s
f o r m e a s u r i n g s t y le s , b o t h i n a d o l e s c e n t s a n d a d u l t s ( s e e
S t e r n b e r g & G r i g o r e n k o , 1 9 9 5 ) . F o u r o f t h e m a i n o n e s
a r e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d b e l o w .
F i r s t , t h e T h i n k i n g S t y l e s I n v e n t o r y ( S t e r n b e r g &
W a g n e r , 1 9 9 1 ) i s a s e l f - r e p o r t m e a s u r e i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s
( o r o t h e r e x a m i n e e s ) r a t e t h e m s e l v e s o n a 9 - p o i n t s c a l e
r a n g i n g f r o m 1 low) to 9 high) o n a n u m b e r o f p r e f e r -
e n c e s. E x a m p l e s o f i te m s o n t he i n v e n t o r y a r e I l i k e
t a sk s t h at a l l o w m e to d o t h in g s m y o w n w a y ( l eg i s la -
t i v e) , I l i k e s i t u a t io n s i n w h i c h i t is c l e a r w h a t r o l e I
m u s t p l a y o r i n w h a t w a y I s h o u ld p a r t i c i p a t e ( e x e c u -
t i ve ) , a n d I l i k e t o e v a l u a t e a n d c o m p a r e d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s
o f v i e w o n i s su e s th a t i n t e r e s t m e ( j u d i c i a l) .
S e c o n d , t h e T h i n k i n g S t y l es Q u e s t i o n n a i r e f o r T e a c h-
e r s ( G r i g o r e n k o & S t e i n b e r g , 1 9 9 3 c ) m e a s u r e s t e a c h e r s '
p r e f e r e n c e s f o r t h i n k i n g s t y l e s i n s t u d e n t s ( f o r s e v e n
o f t h e s t y le s ). T h e s e p r e f e r e n c e s m a y o r m a y n o t c o r r e -
s p o n d t o t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s f o r t h e m s e l v e s . E x a m p l e s o f
i t e m s , r a t e d o n a 1 - 9 s c a l e , a r e I w a n t m y s tu d e n t s
t o d ev e l o p t h e i r o w n w a y s o f s o lv i n g p r o b l e m s ( l eg i s la -
t iv e ) a n d I a g r e e w i t h p e o p l e w h o c a l l f o r m o r e , h a r sh e r
d i s c i p l i n e , a n d a r e t u r n t o t h e ' g o o d o l d w a y s '
( c o n s e r v a t i v e ) .
T h i r d , t h e S e t o f T h i n k i n g S t y l e s T a s k s f o r S t u d e n t s
( G r i g o r e n k o & S t e r n b e r g , 1 9 9 3 a ) m e a s u r e s s t u d e n t s '
p r e f e r e n c e s f o r s t y l e s i n a c t u a l t a s k s . A n e x a m p l e o f a n
i t e m i s w h e n I a m s t u d y i n g l i t e r at u r e , I p r e f e r t o ( a)
f o l l o w t h e t e a c h e r ' s a d v i c e a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f a u t h o r s '
p o s i t i o n s , a n d t o u s e t h e t e a c h e r ' s w a y o f a n a l y z i n g l i t e ra -
t u r e ( e x e c u ti v e ) , ( b ) t o m a k e u p m y o w n s to r y w i t h
m y o w n c h a r a c te r s a n d m y o w n p l o t ( l eg i sl a ti v e) , ( c )
t o e v a l u a t e t h e a u t h o r ' s s t y l e , t o c r i t i c i z e t h e a u t h o r ' s
i d e a s , a n d t o e v a l u a t e c h a r a c t e r s ' a c t i o n s ( j u d i c i a l ) , o r
( d ) t o d o s o m e t h i n g e l s e ( p l e a s e i n d i c a t e i n t h e s p a c e
b e l o w ) .
F o u r t h , t h e S t u d e n t s ' T h i n k i n g S t y l e s E v a l u a t e d b y
T e a c h e r s ( G r i g o r e n k o & S t e r n b e r g , 1 9 9 3 b ) m e a s u r e h a s
t e a c h e r s e v a l u a t e t h e s t y l e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s . E x a m -
p l e s o f i t e m s ar e s / h e p r e f e r s to s o l v e p r o b l e m s i n h e r
o r h i s o w n w a y ( l e g i sl a t iv e ) a n d s / h e l ik e s t o e v a l u a t e
h e r o r h i s o w n o p i n i o n s a n d t h o s e o f o t h e r s ( j u d ic i a l) .
D a t a G e n e r a te d b y t h e T h e o r y
n t e r na l va l id i ty .
A n i n i t i a l s t u d y w i t h M a r i e
M a r t i n ( s e e r e p o r t i n S t e r n b e r g , 1 9 9 4 b ) a s s e s s e d a s p e c t s
o f t h e i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y o f t h e T h i n k i n g S t y l e s I n v e n t o r y .
S c a l e r e l i a b i l i t i e s r a n g e d f r o m
Recommended