“Judaism’s Embrace of Islam: An Historical Inquiry into ... · “Judaism’s Embrace of Islam:...

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“Judaism’sEmbraceofIslam:AnHistoricalInquiryintotheRoleofIslaminModernJewishThought”SusannahHeschelDartmouthCollege

Duringthecourseofthenineteenthcentury,aJewishOrientalStudiesarose

thatsoughtnotadenigrationofIslam,butitselevationasarationalreligionwithan

intimaterelationshiptoJudaism.Startinginthe1830s,Jewsflockedtothestudyof

IslaminGermany,afieldthatwasovershadowedatthattimebyamuchstronger

GermaninterestinSanskrit.Indeed,thepublicationin1833ofAbrahamGeiger’s

doctoraldissertation,WashatMuhammadausdemJudenthumeaufgenommen?,a

comparisonoftheQur’anwithrabbinicliterature,isconsidereduntiltodaytohave

inauguratedthescholarlystudyofIslam.

JewishmenwerejustbeinggrantedpermissiontoenterGermanuniversities

inthe1820sand1830sasstudents,butnotasprofessors,andtheirstudyofIslam

didnothaveconventionalcareergoals.LetmenotethatthesewereJewishmen

fromreligioushomeswhoacquiredfluencyinHebrew,Bible,andTalmudintheir

childhood,andmostofwhomhadconsideredacareerintherabbinate.In1840,

LudwigUllmannpublishedhisGermantranslationoftheQur’anwhileworkingasa

rabbiinasmalltown,AlbindeBiberstein,aPolishJew,translatedtheQur’aninto

French,andHebrewtranslationsundertakenbyMoritzSteinschneiderand

HermannReckendorffafewyearslatersimilarlywereundertakenforpersonal

pleasureratherthancareeradvancement,monetarygain,ortheologicalpolemics.

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ThesewerenottranslationscommissionedbyMuslims,butseemrathertohave

beenforthesakeofJewishinterests.

Whatwerethoseinterests?HowdoweunderstandtherapidJewish

dominanceofthefieldofIslamicStudies,atleastinthegreaterGermanicscholarly

worldbythe1920s?WhatdoesitsuggestforthefieldofIslamicStudies,formodern

Jewishthought,forourunderstandingsofOrientalism?WhywouldIslamhavebeen

exaltedandalignedwithJudaismduringanerawhenhistoriansconventionally

insistthatJudaismwasundergoinga“Christianization”?Furthermore,whatwasthe

impactofcolonialism,Zionism,andNationalSocialismonthisJewishfascination

withIslam?Finally,shouldwespeakofaJewishscholarshiponIslam,ora

distinctiveJewishOrientalismwithauniqueknowledge-powerrelationship?What

werethevaryingpoliticsatstakeintheJewishacquisitionofknowledgeabout

Islam?

Thetopicisvast,andmyresearchisnotyetcompleted.WhatIwillpresent

todayisjustaforetastethatwilltouchonthreeperiods:fromthe1830stothe

1860s,duringtheinitialoutpouringofJewishwritingsonIslam;fromthe1870sto

WWI,asJewsfinallycouldattainprofessorshipsatGermanuniversities,andtheir

scholarshiponIslamgrewmorecomplex;fromthe1920suntiltheend,whenJews

wereexpelledfromtheirprofessorshipsandthefieldofIslamicStudiesinGermany

almostentirelyshutdown.Whatinterestsmeisnotonlytheirscholarship,butthe

footprinttheyleftonIslamicatesocieties.Iwillthenconcludewithsome

observationsregardingtheJewishembraceofIslam,thevariedpoliticsthat

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influencedtheirwork,includingcolonialismandZionism,andsuggestsome

revisionsofourwritingofmodernJewishhistoryimpliedbythistrajectory.

PartOne:1830s-1860s:

ThemodernJewishfascinationwithIslambeginsinthe1830swithasmall

groupofJewishstudentsattheUniversityofBonn,studyingunderGeorgFreytag,

professorofArabicstudiesatBonnsince1819andastudentofAntoinedeSacy.1

Thesestudents,allmale(Jewishwomenhadtowaituntilthe1890s),camefrom

OrthodoxJewishfamiliesandhadastrongtraininginHebrew,Talmud,and

medievalJewishcommentaries.2SeveralofGeiger’sfellowJewishstudentsatBonn

thoughtofbecomingrabbis;inthosedays,Bonn"seemedtobetrulyaHochschule

forJewishtheologians."3Instead,mostofthembecamescholars:LudwigUllmann

translatedtheQur’anintomodernGerman,publishedin1840;SalomonMunk

becametheleadingscholarofmedievalArabicJewishphilosophy;Joseph

Derenbourg,initiallyascholarofSecondTemple-eraJudaism,laterturnedtoJewish

historyunderIslam;andAbrahamGeiger.

Freytag,whowelcomedtheJewishstudentswarmly,wasalinguistic

philologistwhoalsotaughtcoursesinHebrewBibleatBonn;atthattime,therewas

noseparateprofessorshipforIslamicStudies.Heformulatedthetopicofaprize

essayoutofdeferencetoGeiger(atdeSacy’ssuggestion?),WashatMuhammadaus

demJudenthumeaufgenommen?,submittedinLatinin1832,butthenpublishedin

Germanin1833.Whileworkingonthetopic,Geigerrecordedinhisdiarythe

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genuinepleasureheexperiencedindiscoveringtheparallelsbetweenthetwo

religions.

GeigerwasremarkablysympathetictoIslam:Muhammadwasagenuine

religiousenthusiast,notaseducerorfraudorepileptic.HewrotetheQur’an,

recognizedthePentateuchasabookoflawandMosesasalawgiver;headopted

manyJewishteachings,butalsoinvertedsomeofthem.Hedidnotseektobe

originalnortofoundanewreligion,buttoestablishonefoundedonancient

traditions.GeigernotedparallelswiththeMishnah,whichheacknowledgedmight

havealsopassedtoIslamviaChristianity:Thesevenheavens,mentionedinthe

Qur’aninafewplaces,comesfromMishnahHagigah9:2;sevenhellsfromEruvin

19:1;thosewhobuiltthetowerofBabelwillbeabsolutelyannihilatedbya

poisonouswind,Sura11:63,orwillhavenoplaceinthenextworld,Mishnah

Sanhedrin10:3;tosavealifeistosavethewholepeople,MishnahSanhedrin4:5,

Qur’anSura5:32,andsoforth.Legalreasoningalsoshowsparallels:all

commandmentsareofequalvalue,butifaparent,whomwearecommandedto

honor,tellsustoviolateacommandment,whomdoweobey?BoththeTalmud

(Yebamot6)andMuhammad(Sura29:7)posetheproblemandrespondsimilarly.

Purificationbeforeprayerisrequiredbyboth,andhowtopray–“Pronouncenot

thyprayeraloud,neitherpronounceitwithtoolowavoice,butfollowamiddleway

betweenthese,”Muhammadenjoins(Sura17:110);theTalmudsays,“Fromthe

behaviorofHannahwhoinprayermovedherlipswelearnthathewhopraysmust

pronouncethewords,and….notraisehisvoiceloudly”(Berachot31:2).

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Inhisbook,GeigerusedthetextoftheQur’ananditsborrowingsand

deviationsfromrabbinicliteratureasgristtoarguethatreligionistheproductof

historicalandsocialforces,notofthesoul,consciousness,weather,orrevelation.

TheQur’anisasourceforhimnotonlyoftheoriginsofIslam,butofdevelopments

withinJudaismintheseventhcentury.HisbookreconstructsthehistoryofJudaism

inArabiabutmostimportant,claimsIslamastheoffspringofJudaism.

DemonstratingtheparallelsbetweenQur’anicpassagesandtextsfromtheMidrash

andMishnah(eg,Sura5:35parallelsMishnaSanhedrin4:5),Geigerarguedthat

MuhammadknewmoreofJewishlawthanheadopted,andthathehadlittle

intentionofimposinganewcodeoflaws,butratherwantedtospreadnewand

purifiedreligious(thatis,Jewish)views(muchasGeigerlaterarguesaboutJesus);

andasanArab,Muhammaddidn’twanttodeviatetoofarfromestablishedcustom.

Throughoutthebook,Muhammadisportrayedinlanguagefarmoresympathetic

thanwascommonatthetime.Hewasnotanimposterorseducer,butaproductof

hissocialcontext,withacleverpoliticalskillandadesirenottocreateanew

religionbuttospreadmonotheism.TheargumentGeigerdevelopedconcernednot

onlythewaysMuhammadcomposedtheQur’antosolidifyhisownpositionof

leadership,butalsoconcernedthetransmissionofJewishlearning.Hereiswhere

Geigershowshimselfaheadofhistime:hearguesthatMuhammad,inwritingthe

Qur’an,deliberatelyconstructedAbrahamasaprototypeofhimself,asapublic

preacherwhowonconverts,wasamodelofpiety,establishedamonotheistic

religion,andsoforth.(98-9)Atthesametime,heimpliesthattherabbisofantiquity

didnotkeeptheirteachingsexclusivelyforJews,butwerehappytosharetheir

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teachingwithArabpagans.ForGeiger,thesignificanceofScripturewasnotasthe

wordofGod,butasanenormousreligiousinfluence.

Geiger’sbookwashailedalloverEuropeasinauguratinganewwayof

understandingtheoriginsofIslamwithinJudaism.4AntoinedeSacy,Heinrich

Ewald,ReinhardDozy,TheodorNoeldeke,HeinrichFleischer,IgnazGoldziher,were

amongthemanyscholarswhopraiseditas“epoch-making”(Noeldeke).Geiger’s

worklaunchedalongtraditionofJewsoutliningparallelsbetweenrabbinic

literatureandearlyIslamictexts.Letmementionafew:theworkofIsaac

Gastfreund,MohammednachTalmudundMidrasch,1875,andHartwigHirschfeld,

JüdischeElementeimKoran,1878,andIsraelSchapiro,DiehaggadischenElemente

imerzaehlendenTeildesKorans,1907,HeinrichSpeyer,DiebiblischeErzaehlungen

imQoran,1931,amongothers,suchasJosefHorovitz,VictorAptowitzer,David

Sidersky,EugenMittwoch.Theseworkswereunderstoodnotonlyascontributions

toIslamicStudies,butalsototheWissenschaftdesJudentums,thescholarlystudyof

Judaism,inasmuchastheyarguedfortheimportantcontributionofJewishtextsto

theshapingofearlyIslam;indeed,Schapiro’sdissertationwaspublishedbythe

GesellschaftzurFoerderungderWissenschaftdesJudentums.Theiroverallpurpose

wastodemonstraterabbinicparallelswithearlyIslamictextsandJudaism’s

influenceinshapingIslamicbelief,ritualpractice,andlaw.Thenarrativeplotwas

repeatedfromthe1830stothe1930s,buttherewerechangesintone,andthevery

repetitivequalityofthenarrativetookonadifferentnuancebytheearlytwentieth

century,asIhopetodemonstrate.

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AnotherJewishstudentofthatgenerationwhobecameascholarofIslam

wasGustavWeil,whostudiedinHeidelbergandParis,thenspentfiveyearsin

Algiers,CairoandIstanbul,studyingandteaching,beforereturningtoHeidelberg,

wherehecompletedhisHabilitationin1836andbecameanassistantlibrarian.

Afteryearsofscholarlypublicationsandrequestsforaprofessorshipatthe

UniversityofHeidelberg,heultimatelyreceivedachairinOrientalStudiesin1861.5

Weil,aprolificscholar,publishedin1843thefirstEuropeanbiographyofthe

prophetMuhammadbasedonIslamicsources–thesiraofibnIshaq,aspreserved

byibnHisham.WeilworkedprimarilywithArabicmanuscriptsthathadbeen

gatheredfortheDucallibraryinGothabyanadventurer,UlrichJasperSeetzen

(1767-1811);acatalogueofthelibrary’scollectionofArabmanuscriptswas

publishedin1826byJohannMoeller.WeilalsowroteabookonArabicpoetry

(1837),afive-volumehistoryofthecaliphates(1846-51),andastudyofbiblical

legendsasinterpretedinMidrashandTafsir,publishedin1845.Hismostimportant

work,however,washischronologyoftheQur’anicsuras,publishedin1844,which

becamethebasisforTheodorNoeldeke’s1858bookonthesametopic.Weil’swork

waswell-knownalloverEurope,andheevenappearsasacharacterinoneof

Disraeli’snovels,Connigsby.Nonetheless,Weilwasforcedtospendmostofhislife

workingasanassistantlibrarianattheUniversityofHeidelberg,despiteconstant

appealsforaprofessorship,whichwasdeniedbythefacultyonthegroundsthathe

wasaJew,butfinallyoverriddenbytheministryofeducationofBaden-

Wuerttembergin1861,whenhewasalready58yearsold.

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Duringthisperiod,fromthe1830stothe1860s,Islamtookholdinthe

popularJewishimaginationaswellastheWissenschaftdesJudentums.Letme

mentionafewexamplesquickly:thetranslationsoftheQur’anincludedHermann

Reckendorff’sHebrewversionthatusesthelanguageofprayerbookandmidrash,

easilyaccessibletoanytraditionalJew.SynagoguearchitectureinCentraland

WesternEurope,Britian,andtheUnitedStateswaspredominantlyinMoorishstyle,

despitetheexpresseddesireofJewstowinacceptanceintoaChristiansocietythat

disparagedMuslims–hardlythepathtoassimilation.PopularnarrativesofJewish

historystressedtheGoldenAgeofMuslimSpain,incontrasttothepersecutions

sufferedbyJewsinmedievalChristianEurope.Shortlybeforehisconversionto

Christianity,HeinrichHeineemphasizedpreciselythatpointinhis1824play,

Almansor,whichdescribesalovebetweenaJewandaMuslimthatwasforbidden

andpersecutedbythenewChristianrulersofmedievalSpainwhoconqueredthe

priorMuslimrulers.6HeinrichGraetz,whoseeleven-volumeHistoryoftheJews

popularizedthekindofargumentGeigerputforth.GraetzwrotethatIslam“was

inspiredbyJudaismtobringintotheworldanewreligiousformwithpolitical

foundations,whichonecallsIslam,anditinturnexertedapowerfulimpacton

JewishhistoryandthedevelopmentofJudaism.”7OtherpopularizersofJewish

historywroteinasimilarvein,claimingIslamastheproductofJudaism,evenas

theydistinguish(asdidGeigerhimself)betweenthereligionofIslam,ontheone

hand,andthewarfareandviolentconquestscarriedoutbyMuslims,especiallyby

OttomanTurks,overthecenturies.YetEurope’sbattlewiththeOttomansdidnot

representthereligion,norundermineitsrelationshiptoJudaism,inJewisheyes.

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PartTwo:1870s-WWI

Letmeturntoamorecomplexera,asthescholarshipbecamemore

sophisticated,Jewsreceivedprofessorships,Germanybecameacolonialpower,

Zionismarose,andracialtheoryinvadedthehumanitiesandsocialsciences.During

thissecondphaseofJewishscholarshiponIslam,Iwanttocallattentiontoseveral

newdevelopments.

First,IgnazGoldziherwasoneofseveralEuropeanJewswhosetravelsto

Islamicateregionsbroughtthemintolong-term,significantrelationships.Gustav

WeilseemstohavebeentheonlyoneoftheJewishscholarsoftheearliererawho

travelledtotheMiddleEast.Butthelastdecadesofthecenturyshowanew

development.TheHungarianJewMaxHerz,whostudiedarchitectureatthe

UniversityofVienna,becameaconsultantinCairoattheturnofthecenturyfor

restoringtheal-Azharandal-Rifai’imosques,andestablishedthecollectionthat

ultimatebecametheMuseumofIslamicArtinCairo;8theHungarianJewGottlieb

Leitner,whospentpartofhischildhoodinTurkey,helpedcreatetheUniversityof

thePunjabandlaterbuiltthefirstmosqueinEngland,openedin1889inthe

LondonsuburbofWoking;theGermanJewJosefHorovitz,whocompletedhis

doctorateattheUniversityofBerlinunderEduardSachau,tookaprofessorshipof

ArabicattheAligarhMuslimUniversityfrom1907-1914.Oneofhiscolleaguesat

AligarhwhostudiedHebrewtextswithhimwasHamiduddinFarahi,oneofthe

mostdistinguishedQur’anscholarsofhisdayknownforhisworkonthecoherence

oftheQur’an.Farahi’sstudent,AminAhsanIslahi,aneminentscholarofQur’anand

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ofIslamiclaw,andoneofthefounders,withMawdudi,ofthereligiouspartyJamaat

e-Islami,citesHebrewtextsinhistafsir,explicatingQur’anpassages,nodoubtasa

resultofHorovitz’steaching.JustafootnoteonHorovitz:forcedtoleaveArligarh

withtheoutbreakofWWI,hetookaprofessorshipattheUniversityofFrankfurt,

wherehetrainedseveralsignificantscholars,includingShlomoDovGoitein.Inthe

1920s,HorovitzwasaskedbyJudahMagnestodeviseaplanforaninstitutefor

OrientalStudiesattheHebrewUniversityinJerusalem,whichheenvisionedasdual

language,HebrewandArabic,withprofessorsofEuropeanphilologybutalsoimams

teachingcontemporaryIslamictheology.Hisplannevercametofruition,and

Horovitzdiedatayoungagein1931.

Goldziherestablishedpersonalrelationshipswithscholars,religious

reformers,andpoliticalleadersduringhistripstoCairoandDamascusinthe1870s,

atripcutshortduetothedeathofhisfatherbackinHungary.WhileinCairo,

GoldziheralsocametoknowJamalal-Dinal-Afghaniandhisgroupofstudents,and

usedtomeetiwhtthematacoffeehouse,discussingtopicsthathesaidwere“free-

thinkingandheretical,”justthesortofapproachGoldziherwantedinrelationto

Judaismaswell.Thatrelationshipbroughtforthnotonlycorrespondencewithal-

Afghani,butalsowritingsbyGoldziheragainstBritishcolonialism,andasharp

defenseofal-AfghaniagainstErnestRenan’sracistattacks.Goldziherwasnotan

opponentofreligion,butanadvocateofreform,startingwithhisfirstpublication,at

age12,in1862,ofSeferYitzchak,adiatribeagainsttheOrthodoxJudaismthat

dominatedHungary.

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Goldziher’sstudyofHadith,thetraditionsabouttheprophetMuhammad,

MuhammadanischeStudien,arguesthatfewHadithareauthenticteachingsof

Muhammad,butinsteadtheyofferafullhistoryoftheargumentsofcentral

importancetoMuslims:“Minutestudysoonrevealsthepresenceofthetendencies

andaspirationsofalaterday,theworkingofaspiritwhichwreststherecordin

favourofoneortheotheroftheopposingthesesincertaindisputedquestions.”9

isnadswereusedtolegitimatelaterteachingsbyprojectingthemintothepast.

Goldziher’sMuslimswereliketherabbisoftheJudaism’srabbinictradition,who

attributedtheirteachingstonotedrabbisofearliereras,andwhomodifiedtheir

rulingsinaccordancewiththepoliticalandsocialandeconomicenvironmentofthe

Jews:GoldziheremphasizedthatevenMuhammadhadtoadapthisteachingstothe

circumstancesoftheArabstowhomhewaspreaching.Religiouspracticewas

malleable,andinterpretationsoftheQur’anwereboundtovaryindifferenteras,a

signofthereligion’svitality–thesameargumentGoldzihermadewithregardto

JudaisminhisearlierstudyofMidrash,HebrewMyths.

Goldziher’sworkcombinedaradicalsuspicionofthehistoricalclaimsof

religioustextswithasensitivitytothereligiousexperienceunderlyingthetexts.

Thesearemethodshelearned,sohetellsusinhisdiary,fromGeiger,who

transmittedtohimthemethodsofthefamedNewTestamentscholarshipknownas

theTuebingenSchool,foundedbyF.C.Baur.InturningtoIslam,wefindinGoldziher

bothaprofoundappreciationandwhatseemstobeadisparagementofits

originality.DuringhistravelsintheMiddleEast,forinstance,Goldziherprayedin

mosquesinDamascusandCairo,writingthat…..

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Atthesametime,GoldziherechoedJewishdenialsofIslamicoriginality:

Islamcontains“practicallynothingoriginal”;“Muhammaddidnotproclaimnew

ideas”(5);“Muhammad’steachingwasnottheoriginalcreationofhisgenius…but

allhisdoctrinesaretakenfromJudaismandChristianity”;Islam“wasthemost

importantmanifestationoftheSemiticgeniusevermade.”10SuchdenialsofIslamic

originalitywerenotintendedbyGoldzihertodisparageIslam,buttodemonstrate

itsvitality–andalsothatofJudaism.WritingagainsttheSemiticphilologistErnst

Renan,whoviewedbothIslamandJudaismasstagnantSemiticreligions,incapable

ofdevelopment,andlackingmythology,GoldziherarguedthatIslam,likeJudaism,

hasareceptivenature,acapacitytoassimilateforeignideasandritualsandadapt

itselftochangingcircumstances.Freedofthematrixofmythology,Judaismand

Islamraisedthemselvestomonotheism,whichallowedthemtoinaugurateahistory

ofscientificunderstanding.11

MorethananalliancebetweenJudaismandIslam,weseeinGoldziher’s

IslamatemplateforpresentingJudaismtotheEuropeanChristianaudience.Like

Islam’sHadith,JudaismhasAggadah;likefiqh,Judaismhashalakha.Bothare

religionsofmonotheism,rejectionofanthropomorphism,andemphasizeethical

behavior.AfterjoiningFridayprayersatamosqueinDamascus,Goldziherwrote:“I

becameinwardlyconvincedthatImyselfwasaMuslim.”InCairo,atamosque,“In

themidstofthethousandsofthepious,Irubbedmyforeheadagainstthefloorof

themosque.NeverinmylifewasImoredevout,moretrulydevout,thanonthat

exaltedFriday.”“IonlywishIcouldelevatemyJudaismtothesamerationallevelas

Islam.”SuchcommentsarenotheardfromJewishscholarswhovisitachurch.With

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Judaism’salliancewithIslam,Christianityistheologicallymarginalized;itisthe

religionthatrestsondogmacontrarytoreason,miracles,andthesupernatural.

Goldziher’sscholarshipcontinuestoinformcontemporaryscholars,buthis

appraisalofIslamwasnottypicalofhisera.Bythelate19thcentury,thefieldof

OrientalistikhadestablisheditselfatGermanuniversities,studyingallreligions,

ancientandmodern,exceptJudaism.Jews,however,continuedtheirinterestin

Islam,asacademicsandalsointhepopularsphere–synagoguescontinuedtobe

builtinMoorisharchitecture(Oranienburgerstrasse,completelyin1872),and

studentsatEuropeanrabbinicalschoolslearnedArabic–evenattheOrthodox

yeshivaofWuerzburg,evenatJewishhighschoolsinGermany,wherechildrenwere

sometimestaughtQur’an.

HereisthevoiceoftheGerman-Jewishphilosopheroftheturnofthecentury,

HermannCohen:"TheJewishphilosophyoftheMiddleAgesdoesnotgrowsomuch

outofIslamasoutoftheoriginalmonotheism.Themoreintimaterelationship

betweenJudaismandIslam--moreintimatethanwithothermonotheisticreligions--

canbeexplainedbythekinshipthatexistsbetweenthemotheranddaughter

religion."12Asharpcontrast,ofcourse,fromCohen’swell-knownpolemicsagainst

Christianity.Muslimsocietypermittedtheemergenceoftheso-called"creative

symbiosis"thatemergedbetweenmedievalJewishandMuslimcultures;S.D.Goitein

writes,“ItwasIslamwhichsavedtheJewishPeople.”13Indeed,Goiteinexpresses

explicitlywhatothersonlyimplied,thatIslamisareligionof“ethicalmonotheism.”

NotallJewishtheologiansfollowedsuit;LeoStraussforgedanalliancebetween

JudaismandIslam,inoppositiontoChristianity,whereasFranzRosenzweigisthe

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famousexceptiontotheJewishembraceofIslam,andthereisvirtuallyno

significantattentiontoIslaminthewritingsofpost-WWIIAmericanJewsuntilthe

recentriseofJewish-sponsoredIslamophobicpropaganda,whichparallelstheshift

inIsraelipropagandafrompresentingArabsastheenemytopresentingIslamasthe

enemy.

WhatwasthereactiontotheEuropeanJewishembraceofIslambyEuropean

scholarswhowerenotJewishbegantoenterthefieldofIslamicoriginswitha

denialofJewishinfluence?JuliusWellhausen,forexample,transferredtraditional

ChristiantheologicaldenigrationsofJudaismtohisevaluationofIslam,andbothhe

andC.H.BeckertransferredtheoriginsofIslamtoHellenism,notJudaism.14

Wellhausen,inswitchinghisscholarshipfromtheOldTestamenttoIslam,intended,

hewrote,“tolearnaboutthewildstockuponwhichtheshootofYahwe’sTorawas

graftedbythepriestsandtheprophets.”15Whathehopedtofind,JosefvanEss

explains,“wasreligiositywithoutpriestsandprophets,thatis,withouttheLawand

withoutinstitutions.”16WellhausenwaslookingforliberalProtestantism,purgedof

Judaism.ForWellhausen,theeraofclassicalprophecywasthehighpointofancient

Israel;thepriesthoodandreligiouslawwereviewedbyhimaslaterdevelopments

markingadegenerationofbiblicalIsrael’sreligiosityintoJudaism.Similarly,Becker

assumedadichotomybetweensubjectivereligiosityandinstitutionalizedreligion–

animplieddichotomybetweenProtestantismandJudaism.VanEsswrites,“Inhis

[Wellhausen’s]view,theshari’afostersconservatismandmakesprogress

impossible;itsidealisticcharactermakesthosewhoaresubjecttoitdespairof

adequateaccomplishmentandthusfavorstheirindolence.”17

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Bythelate19thandearly20thcentury,someJewishscholars,too,changed

theirtone,initiallybygrowingEuropeancolonialinterests.TheGerman-bornand

trainedHartwigHirschfeld,forexample,writesthattheQur’anis“monotonousto

read,inspiteofitsbombasticrhetoric,”andits“manifolddifficultiesrepelrather

thanencouragethestudyoftheQur’an.”18Elsewherehewritesthatthe“Qur’an,the

textbookofIslam,isinrealitynothingbutacounterfeitoftheBible.”19Histoneis

echoedbyIsraelSchapiro,whospokeintheintroductiontohisstudyofaggadic

influencesontheQur’an,publishedin1907,oftheQur’an’s“dependenceonJewish

texts.”TheQur’anelaboratedonJewishtextsasakindof“bejeweling”ofthe

original,Schapirowrote.20Hirschfeld’stone,expressedinhisbookonThe

CompositionandExegesisoftheQur’an,mayreflecthismovetoEngland,wherehe

becamePrincipalofJews’College;thetoneofBritishscholarshiponIslamwasfar

moredenigratingandhostilethanthatoftheircounterpartsinGermany.Eugen

Mittwoch,whoeventuallyreplacedEduardSachauasprofessorofOrientalStudies

anddirectoroftheOrientalStudiesInstituteattheUniversityofBerlin,continuedin

Geiger’spathregardingparallelsbetweenJudaismandIslam,buthistone,too,is

negative.HisstudyofliturgyandritualinIslam,publishedin1913,insistsonits

derivationfromJudaism,eveninitsrulingoffiveprayersperday,incontrastto

Judaism’sprayersthreetimesaday,withanunderlyingtoneto“prove”Islam’slack

oforiginality.21HerethemotivationisnotlikeGoldziher’sefforttorefuteRenan’s

racism,butratherstemsfromMittwoch’ssemi-governmentalengagementin

Germancolonialprojects.MittwochwasapropagandistfortheGermangovernment

duringWWI,disseminatingliteratureandinducingMuslimPOWstojointhe

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Ottomanarmy.HealsoreportedonthedeportedArmeniancommunityinBerlin,

gavesupporttotheTurkish-languagepolicy,andalsosupportedtheeliminationof

ArmeniansfromtheeconomiclifeofTurkeyasbeneficialtoGermanbusiness.

HilmarKaiserhasnamedMittwochoneoftheGermanscholarsimplicatedin

propagandisticsupportforpoliciesthatultimatelyfacilitatedtheArmenian

genocide.In1920,MittwochbecamedirectoroftheSeminarforOrientalLanguages

attheUniversityofBerlin,andoversawtheinstructionofawiderangeoflanguages

ofChina,Africa,andtheMiddleEast.Instructioninvolvedbothphilologyand

modernspokendialects,andstudentsreceivedcertificatesofqualificationthat

enabledthemtoreceivepositionsinGermanbusinessesdoinginternationaltrade,

andalsointheGermandiplomaticcorps.

LudmillaHanischfindsthatthefieldofOrientalStudies,especially

scholarshiponIslam,wasdominatedbyJewsbythe1920s,andsheestimatesthat

in1933about25%ofthechairsinOrientalistikwereoccupiedbyJews,withmany

moreJews(andafewwomen!)occupyinglowerpositionsontheacademictotem

pole.22Theresult,however,wasthatthefieldofIslamicStudieswasdecimatedonce

theNaziscametopowerandJewslosttheiracademicpositions.EugenMittwoch,

forexample,wasexpelledfromhisprofessorshipandemigratedtoEngland,

GottholdWeil,whohadreplacedJosefHorovitzinFrankfurt,leftforPalestineand

tookwithhimGoldziher’sextensivelibrary.TheIslamicStudiesdiasporatookona

verydifferentcharacterinthecountriesanduniversitieswhereittookrootafter

WWIIandaftertheestablishmentoftheStateofIsrael.

17

17

DuringtheNaziera,SemiticphilologyattheUniversityofBerlin,for

example,wassupposedtobechangedtoAryanphilology.23Many–butnotall–of

theJewishscholarswhowentintoexilere-establishedtheirscholarlyworkat

universitiesinIsrael,theUnitedStates,andelsewhere,butthenatureandtoneof

theirscholarshipinevitablyshiftedinthepost-WorldWarIIera,asitdidin

Germanyaswell.DuringtheThirdReich,Jewishscholarshipwasneithercitednor

recognized,andfollowingthewar,theworkofJewishscholars,especiallyinthe

fieldofQur’anstudies,wasnotcontinueuntilveryrecently,primarilyunderthe

effortsofAngelikaNeuwirth.24Jewishcontributionswereerased,forexample,from

JohannesFueck’ssurveyofIslamicStudies,publishedin1955.YetIalsofindit

strikingthatthemanyJewishbookspublishedinGermanyduringtheThirdReich,

especiallyaroundthe800thanniversaryofMaimonides’sbirthin1935,emphasize

approvinglyIslam’srejectionofanthropomorphism,asifsymbolicallyrepudiating

thedeificationofHitlerbycontemporaryChristiantheologians.

NowletmesayawordaboutZionismbeforeIconclude.Judaism,Sidra

Ezrahiwrites,isamimeticreligion.Acultureofsubstitutioninallthelandsoftheir

dispersion,suchasZionism,impliedareconnectionwiththeoriginalspacethatwas

“perceivedasthebedrockofthecollectiveself.”25WhatislongedforinZionismis

supposedtobewhatisremembered:thespacesandmomentsofbiblicalhistory.

Yet,asEzrahiwrites,memoryisimagined,“asmimesistakesontheauthorityand

licenseofmemoryandmemorybecomesanarticleoffaith.”26

TheroleofmimesisintheJewishfascinationwithIslamand,especially,Arab

MuslimsandtheBedouinofPalestine,intensifiedintheearlyZionistmovement.As

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18

GilEyalwrites,earlyZionists,arrivinginPalestineattheturnofthecentury,

requireda“mythofautochthony,aprojectofinventinganewHebrewculture,

almostoutofwholecloth,andforthisveryreasonitrequiredthemaskofthe

Arab.”27Zionismmeantanegationofexile,butalsotheJews’romantic

appropriationofEuropeanOrientalism;theJewwasnowtheArab.Inapamphlet

publishedin1946,ShlomoDovGoitein,whotrainedinIslamicStudiesunderJosef

HorovitzattheUniversityofFrankfurt,wrotethatZionists,childrenoftheOrient,”

shouldlearnArabicaspartoftheir“returntotheHebrewlanguageandtothe

SemiticOrient.”28ZionistsinPalestine,recentlyarrivedfromEurope,rodecamels

andworekeffiyahs,hopingtoreclaimanauthenticbiblicalidentitypreserved

throughthecenturiesbyArabsandBedouin.JosephKlausnergivesusacynical

descriptionofthephenomenon:“IfaJewhappenstoadoptBedouincustoms;ifhe

managestorideahorseandshootagunandwearanArabrobe–rightawayour

Hebrewwritersgetexcited….IftheestablishmentofaJewishYishuv[settlement]in

EretsIsrael[thelandofIsrael][means]…assimilationintoArabbackwardness,itis

bettertostayintheDiasporaandassimilateintotheenlightenedWestern

culture.”29

Theirswasareverseconversion.JewstraveledtotheHolyLandnotas

missionaries,toconvertnativeArabChristiansandMuslimstoJudaism,tobere-

convertedbyinteractingwiththemandappropriatingelementsoftheiridentityin

ordertopurgethemselvesofEuropeanJewishidentityandrestoreanIsraelite

Jewishidentity.ThisisnottodenythecolonialistnatureoftheZionistaliyah;even

ChristianmissionarieswereseekingnotonlytoconvertthenativestoChristianity,

19

19

buttoexperienceatasteofbiblicallifeintheHolyLand,adualmixtureofpietyand

modernization,asUsamaMakdisipointsout.30

EarlyZionistwritersembracedtheOrientastheoriginal,authenticJewish

identity,evenwhilerenderingtheArabpopulationobsoleteandholdingthe

Mizrahim,JewsfromMuslimandArabcountries,incontempt.“Fromtheoutset,”

writesAmnonRaz-Krakotzkin,“Zionistdiscoursewaspremisedupontheadoption

oforientalistattitudes,andorientalismwasessentialtothenationalizationofthe

Jewishcollectivityandthewaysinwhichthenationwasimagined.”31Bythis,Raz-

Krakotzkinmeanstheconventional,SaidianEuropeanorientalism.Jewish

orientalism,bycontrast,channeleditselevatedviewofIslamasarational,idealized

religionintothesmallbinationalBritShalommovement,inauguratedin1925by

JosefHorovitzduringhisvisittoPalestine.

Performanceandmimicrywere,ofcourse,essentialcomponentsof

Orientalism.TheOrientwasanidentitytobeassumedandperformed;its

authenticitylayinitsappropriationbyWesterners,andtheOrient’snegationlay

withArabsandMizrahiJews,muchlikeChristianswhocelebrateHebrewbutvilify

theJew.TheadoptionofBedouincustomsandtheencouragementofArabic

languagestudybyJewsseemedtobetoolstofashionanewJewishidentity.Who,

then,wastobetherealoriental,theJewortheArab?Wasauthenticityrootedinthe

mimeticeffortsoftheEuropeanJewsadoptingorientaldress,orinthelivesof

JewishimmigrantsfromArablands?Atadeeperlevel,itisabouttheeroticsof

racism,notjustthefearofmiscegenationthatAnnStolerhassobrilliantly

20

20

described,butaboutraceasthedisciplinarytoolofimperialism,andtheerotic

incestuousdesirethatripensinracistcultures.

Initially,ZionisthistoriographywasdevotedtoJewsoftheArabworld;the

firstseriesofthejournalZionwasdevotedtoorientalandPalestinianJewry.Yetin

thatsameyear,1936,thedenialofMizrahihistorybeganandhistoriansshiftedto

thestudyofEuropeanJews,whileanthropologistswereassignedtostudy

orientals.32Thoseshiftswereaccompaniedbyagrowingambivalencetowardthe

orientalistnatureoftheZionistproject.ArabiclanguagestudyinJewishschoolsin

Palestinefellintodisfavor,Mizrahiimmigrantswereviewedasuncultured,andthe

HebrewUniversitydidnotimplementthecurricularplanformulatedbyHorovitzin

themid-1920sforitsInstituteforOrientalStudies.Horovitzhadcalledfordual

languagesattheInstitute,inHebrewandArabic,and,inadditiontotheEuropean

philologicalmethodsofIslamicStudies,classestaughtbyIslamicimamson

contemporarytheologicalandlegaldebatesintheMuslimworld.33Foravarietyof

reasons,includingHorovitz’ssuddendeathin1931,hisvisionwasnotrealized.

Nonetheless,thestudyofIslambecameanimportantfieldinIsraeliuniversities,and

afieldminedbypoliticalinterests.

Conclusion

Letmenowturntosomegeneralconclusionsandcomparisonsand

questions,totrytounderstandtheattractionofJewstoOrientalStudies,especially

inlightofthefrequentorientalizingofJewishnessinGermany.Afterall,Jewswere

called“deutschredendeOrientalen”(Treitschke);“orientalischeFremdlinge”

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21

(orientalaliens,Marr);“WuestenvolkundWandervolk”(Sombart).The

historicizationofbiblicalstudiesbyGermanProtestantsinthenineteenthcentury

createdanorientalizationofJudaism,inthesenseoftheorientasashelterfromthe

vicissitudesofprogress.FriedrichMaxMuellerandErnestRenanspokeofSemitic

monotheismastheproductofdesertnomadsforeigntoEuropeanAryans.The

conceptoftheSemiticlinkedJewsandArabsandparticipatedintheracializationof

philologyandofthestudyofreligion.

Islamhasbeendraftedintoanumberofdifferentrolesintheimperial

nation-statesofEurope:asaguarantorofEuropeanChristiansuperiorityandan

excuseforitsoverseasadventures;asthematerialonwhichphilologyhonedits

skills;asthefoundationforanorientalistimaginarythatencouraged(male)erotic

adventures;andasJudaism’stemplateforself-presentationtotheChristianworld.

WestillmustaskhowMuslimsrespondedwhenencounteredsuchJewishmirrors

ofIslam.

IncontrasttotheorientalismdescribedbyEdwardSaidandahostofothers,

JewishwritingsonIslamaremoststrikingfortheabsenceoferoticmaterial.The

imaginedharemasasiteoferoticfantasies,orIslamicateculturesasofferingsexual

adventuresaresimplynotexploredinJewish-authoredtextsofthemodernperiod.

Asecondcontrastistheshiftindirection.AsSuzanneMarchandhasargued,

orientalistshopedtofindanalternativecontextintheEastforChristianorigins,or

perhapsfortheAryansoul,andtheyworkedtodethroneClassicsfromitsposition

ofpreeminenceintheGermanacademy.ForJews,however,thesearchwasfor

Judaism’sinfluenceincreatingIslam(aswellasChristianity,modernity).Yetthis

22

22

emphasisalsocallsourattentiontotheexaggeratedimportanceofautochthonyin

thecreationofmodernJewishthought.

TheJewishembraceofIslam,bothasanobjectofscholarshipandasa

templatethroughwhichtopresentJudaismtotheEuropeanworld,whether

symbolicallyviasynagoguearchitectureortheologicallyasaunitedfrontagainst

Christianity,givesusalensthroughwhichtoreconsideraspectsofmodernJudaism.

IslamwasimaginedbyJewsasareligionofstrictmonotheism,rejectionof

anthropomorphism,adherencetoanethicalreligiouslaw–akindofpurified,

rationalJudaism.Thus,onemotivationwasthelarger,nineteenth-centuryGerman-

JewishagendaofpurifyingJudaism,notsimplyliberalizingit–purgingitofreligious

excess,thatis,pietismandmessianism,exoticismanderoticism,internationalism.

ModernityshouldnotbeunderstoodasamomentorplacethatJewsentered,butas

arhetoricaldevice,onerequiringaninventedarchaic,savage,orprimitivetobe

repudiated–mostoften,EastEuropeanJewishpietism.

Theeffortto“rationalize”Judaismhasbeendescribedinthehistoriesof

nineteenth-centuryJewishthoughtandsocialhistory.Yettheroleplayedbythe

imaginedrationalIslamofJewishscholarshasneverbeenincluded.Jewishattitudes

shifted,ofcourse,withtheriseofZionism,andwiththetwentiethcentury’snew

possibilitiesofJewishallianceswithChristianity.WorldWarIIandthe

establishmentoftheStateofIsraelcreatedentirelynewconditions,politicaland

theological,inJewishself-understandingandrelationswithIslamaswellas

Christianity.Butinitially,identifyingJudaismwithIslambecameatoolto

deorientalizeJudaism.

23

23

ThereisanadditionalfeatureoftheJewishhistoriographythatdeserves

mention:theroleofimperialism.ThestandardnarrativeofmodernJewishhistory

inEuropetellsusthattheemergenceofnation-statesinEuropeexcludedJewsfrom

membershipintherespectivenationalidentities,leadingtotheriseofZionismas

thenationalismoftheJewsprotectedbytheirownstate,thenation-stateasthe

allegedbestguarantorofsecurityandculturalflourishing.34YettheseEuropean

nation-stateswerealsoempires,openingquestionsoftherolesplayedbyEuropean

Jewsincolonialisteconomics,butalsotheinfluencesofimperialistmotifsonJewish

culture.Indeed,seenfromtheperspectiveofthenewimperialturn,Jewishthought

ofthenineteenthcenturyseemslessconcernedwithanidentificationwithnation-

stateGermanyaswithJudaism’simaginedimperialroleasaworldpowerwithinthe

realmofreligions.Jewspossessareligiousgenius,wroteAbrahamGeiger,andgave

theworldmonotheism,givingbirthtobothChristianityandIslam.Inthis

scholarship,Judaismfunctionsasthe“empire”andChristianityandIslamasthe

vassalstates,metaphoricallyspeaking,actingonbehalfofJudaisminbringingits

monotheismtothepaganworld,GreekandArab,witheschatologicalconsequences.

ThepoliticsoftheJewishdiscourseonIslamdiffersfromtheorientalism

prevalentinEuropeduringthesameera.Itreflectsadouble-naturedpolitical

sensibility:arevoltofJewsagainsttheirpositionasEurope’sinternalcolony,andan

assertionofJudaismasanimperialtheologicalpowerintheWesternmonotheistic

context.JohnKucich,inhisbook,ImperialMasochism,speaksofnineteenth-century

Britishfictionasasitefornegotiatingclassidentitiesthroughsadmasochistic

fantasiesof“conquestanddefeat,egotisticalself-aggrandizementandmelancholic

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24

abjection.”Jewishhistoricismismarkedbysimilarconflicts:Judaismisboththe

progenitorofWesterncivilizationthroughitsdaughterreligions,Christianityand

Islam,andtheabjectvictimofpersecutionbyboth.Theimperialistimpulseisthus

notsimplyoneofconquestanddomination,denigratingandcontrollingthe

colonizedother,butaconflictingself-imageruledbyfantasiesofsupremacyand

superioritymatchedbyhistoricaldescriptionsofpersecution,suffering,and

victimization.Thetwophasesofsupremacyandvictimizationcoexistinapolitics

thateasilyrepudiatesliberaldemocracyforthesakeofahystericalclaimtoself-

preservationatallcosts.

InGermany,theorientwassimultaneouslyprimitiveanddegraded,andan

objectofdesireandidentification.AsAugustSchlegelputit:“iftheregenerationof

theHumanspeciesstartedintheEast,GermanymustbeconsideredtheOrientof

Europe.”35GermannationalismwasambivalentaboutidentifyingGermanyas

WesternorCentralEuropean,asLiahGreenfeldpointsout,andthatencouragedthe

Germanfantasiesofidentificationwiththeabject,colonizedothersthatZantop

calledtoourattention.36Thosefantasiesofidentification,indeed,wereapivotfor

theshiftfromnationalismtoimperialism.

YetJewsandJudaismneverbecamethoseobjectsofGermans’fantasized

identification,asdidAryanIndians,NativeAmericans,orpre-IslamicPersians.In

whatways,wemightask,didJudaismparticipateinthecreationandgrowthofan

OrientalistalliancewiththeEastagainsttheWestthatToddKontjeidentifiesasthe

resultofGermany’s“lackofaunifiednation-stateandtheabsenceofempire”?37As

SheldonPollockhasargued,Orientalismservedtobolsternationalculturein

25

25

Germany.WasMoorisharchitecture,forexample,usedforsynagoguesnotonlyin

identificationwiththeSepharditradition,butalsoaspartofaJewisheffortatan

assimilatoryalliancewithGermany’sfantasizedEast?

InhisstudyofOrientalisminIreland,JosephLennonwritesthat“Imperial

BritishtextshadlongcomparedIrelandwithotherOrientalcultures,atfirstinorder

totextuallybarbarizeIrelandandlaterinordertodiscoverintra-imperialstrategies

forgoverningitscolonies.”38TheresponseoftheIrish,however,wasnot

withdrawal.TheIrishstudiedtheOrienttoknowthemselves.IrishOrientalism

developed,Lennonwrites,“bothimperialandanticolonialstrains,mirroringthe

IrishpopulationintheirparticipationinandresistancetotheBritishEmpire,”even

as“IrishconnectionswiththeOrient…wereusedtobothdistinguishanddenigrate

Ireland.”39Indeed,theturntomysticismbyW.B.Yeatshasbeeninterpretedby

SeamusDeanenotasaturnawayfrompolitics,butasanativistornegritude

phenomenon,aninterpretiveapproachwemightfindusefulwhenconsideringthe

renewedinterestinJewishmysticismandHasidismamongCentralEuropeanJews

attheturnofthecentury.40RatherthanviewMartinBuber’spopularreclamationof

HasidismasarepudiationoftheorientalismdevelopedfromGeigertoCohen,we

mightinterpretitsunderlyingpoliticsasSaidinterpretedYeats:“Inaworldfrom

whichtheharshstrainsofcapitalismhaveremovedthoughtandreflection,apoet

whocanstimulateasenseoftheeternalandofdeathintoconsciousnessisthetrue

rebel,afigurewhosecolonialdiminishmentsspurhimtoanegativeapprehensionof

hissocietyandof“civilized”modernity.”41

26

26

Similarly,JewsinhabitedGermannationalism,withitscolonialfantasies

aboutMuslims,butalsoattemptedtoexpandandredirectit,withaninsistenceon

historicism,arejectionofracialexplanationsforreligiousorigins,andanidealized

projectionofIslamthatpointstoJudaism,thereligionofethicalmonotheismbest

suited,asJewishthinkersfromGeigertoHermannCohenargued,tomodernity,

reason,andaEuropeancontinentrevelinginitsimperialconquests.

27

27

1OnFreytag'scareerattheUniversityofBonn,seeChristianRenger,DieGründungundEinrichtungderUniversitätBonnunddieBerufungspolitikdesKultusministersAltenstein(Bonn:LudwigRöhrscheidVerlag,1982),237-9.Duetolossofuniversityrecords,itisnolongerpossibletodetermineinwhichseminarsandlecturesGeigerenrolled.2MonikaRicharz,"Juden,WissenschaftundUniversitäten.ZurSozialgeschichtederjüdischenIntelligenzundderakademischenJudenfeindschaft,1780-1848,"JahrbuchdesInstitutsfürdeutscheGeschichte,Beiheft4,TelAviv1982,55-72.3LudwigGeiger,"Introduction,"AbrahamGeigersBriefeanJ.Derenbourg,AllgemeineZeitungdesJudentums(1896),52.Foradiscussionoftherelationshipbetweenthetwomen,seeMichaelGraetz,"TheHistoryofanEstrangementbetweenTwoJewishCommunities:GermanyandFranceduringthe19thCentury,"inTowardModernity:TheEuropeanJewishModel,ed.JacobKatz(NewBrunswickandOxford:TransactionBooks,1987),159-169.4AbrahamGeiger,WashatMohammedausdemJudenthumeaufgenommen?EinevonderKönigl.PreussischenRheinuniversitätgekröntePreisschrift.(Bonn,1833;reprintedLeipzig:M.W.Kaufmann,1902;Osnabruck:BiblioVerlag,1971).ForfurtherdetailsonGeiger’sstudiesinBonnandthereceptionofhisbook,seeSusannahHeschel,AbrahamGeigerandtheJewishJesus(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1998),50-62.5AlfredIvry,“SalomonMunkandtheMelangesdePhilosophiejuiveetarabe,”JewishStudiesQuarterly7(2000),120-126.6HeinrichHeine,“Almansor,”SaemmtlicheWerke,ed.HansKaufmann(Munich:KindlerVerlag,1964,volume4.7HeinrichGraetz,GeschichtederJuden11volumes(Berlin1920-28),vol.5,page101.8IstvanOrmos,“PreservationandRestoration:TheMethodsofMaxHerzPasha,ChiefArchitectoftheComitedeConservationdesMonumentsdel’ArtArabe,1890-1914”in:HistoriansinCairo:EssaysinHonorofGeorgeScanlon,ed.JillEdwards(Cairo:AmericanUniversityofCairoPress,2002),123ff).9IgnazGoldziher,“ThePrinciplesofLawinIslam,”MuslimStudiesvol.2,302.NotethatD.S.Margoliouth,acontemporaryofGoldziher’sandprofessorofArabicatOxfordUniversity,tooktheargumentevenfurther,asdidHenriLammensandJosephSchacht.10Fortheseandothersuchcomments,seeRobertSimon,IgnacGoldziher:HisLifeandScholarshipasReflectedinHisWorksandCorrespondence(LeidenandBudapest:HungarianAcademyofSciences,1986),pp.11-156.11IgnazGoldziher,TheDogmaandLawofIslam(Heidelberg,1910),16.12HermannCohen,ReligionofReasonoutoftheSourcesofJudaism,trans.SimonKaplan(NewYork:F.Ungar,1972),92;"DiejüdischePhilosophiedesMittelalterserwächstnichtsowohlausdemMonotheismusdesIslam,alsvielmehrausdem

28

28

ursprünglichenMonotheismus,undhöchstenskanndieVerwandtschaft,diezwischendieserTochterreligionundderderMutterbesteht,dieinnigeBeziehungverständlichmachen,welcheintimeralssonstwozwischenJudentumundIslamsichanbahnt.”ReligionderVernunft,107-08.13S.D.Goitein,“Muhammad’sInspirationbyJudaism,”JournalofJewishStudies9(1958),144-162;162.14C.H.Becker,“DerIslamalsProblem,”DerIslam1(1910),1-21.15JuliusWellhausen,MuhammedinMedina(Berlin,1882),5.SeePeterMachinist,“TheRoadNotTaken:WellhausenandAssyriology,”in:HomelandandExile:StudiesinHonorofBustenayOded,ed.GershonGalil,MarkGeller,andAlanMillard(Leiden,Boston:Brill,2009).16JosefvanEss,“FromWellhausentoBecker:TheEmergenceofKulturgeschichteinIslamicStudies,”in:MalcolmH.Kerr,ed.,IslamicStudies:ATraditionandItsProblems(UndenaPublications,1980),27-51;p.42.17JosefvanEss,op.cit.,43.18HartwigHirschfeld,NewResearchesintotheCompositionandExegesisoftheQoran(London:RoyalAsiaticSociety,1902),5.19HartwigHirschfeld,Preface,ComopositionandExegesisoftheQur’an(London:RoyalAsiaticSociety,1902),pageii.20IsraelSchapiro,DiehaggadischenElementeimerzaehlendenTeildesKorans,TeilI.(Berlin:H.Itzkowski,1907),5.21EugenMittwoch,ZurEntstehungsgeschichtedesislamischenGebetsundKultus(Berlin:VerlagderkoeniglichenAkademiederWissenschaften,1913).22Hanisch,“Akzentverschiebung,”218.

23“DerLehrstuhlfuerSemitischePhilologiewirdkuenftigfuerArischenPhilologieinAnspruchgenommenwerden.”From:DerReichs-undPreussischeMinisterfuerWissenschaft,ErziehungundVolksbildung,datedDecember6,1935,totheUniversityofBerlinrectorandtoEugenMittwoch.EugenMittwochPersonalaktenUKM225,page25.HumboldtUniversityarchives,consultedonJanuary26,2012.24“itisimportanttoemphasizetheachievementsoftheGeigerproject.Perhapsforthefirsttime,theQur’anictextsarereintegratedintotheiroriginalculturalcontextandseenforwhattheywerebeforetheywerecanonizedintothefoundationaldocumentofanewreligion–namely,answerstopressingcontemporaryquestionsandproblems,answersthatengaged,modified,adapted,andre-interpretednarrativesandmotiveswithwhichtheiraudiencemustalreadytosomedegreehavebeenfamiliar.ForGeiger,Horovitz,andSpeyer,theQur’anpresenteditselfnotmerelyasthestartingpointofIslamichistorybutratherasatransitionaltextthatneededtoberelocatedwithinacomplex,religiouslyandlinguisticallypluralisticmilieuoforigin.”TheQur'aninContext:HistoricalandLiteraryInvestigationsIntotheQur'anicMilieu,ed.AngelikaNeuwirth,NicolaiSinai,MichaelMarx(Leiden:Brill,2009),5.25SidraEzrahi,BookingPassage:ExileandHomecomingintheModernJewishImagination(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2000),4.26Ezrahi,BookingPassage,9.

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27GilEyal,TheDisenchantmentoftheOrient:ExpertiseinArabAffairsandtheIsraeliState(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2006),2.28CitedbyLioraR.Halperin,“OrientingLanguage:ReflectionsontheStudyofArabicintheYishuv,”JewishQuarterlyReview96:4(2006),481.29JosephKlausner,“Fear,”HaShiloah(1905);citedbyYaronPeleg,OrientalismandtheHebrewImagination(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,2005).30UsamaMakdisi,“ReclaimingtheLandoftheBible:Missionaries,Secularism,andEvangelicalModernity,”AmericanHistoricalReview102:3(1997),680-713.31AmnonRaz-Krakotzkin,“TheZionistReturntotheWestandtheMizrahiJewishPerspective,”in:OrientalismandtheJews,ed.IvanDavidsonKalmarandDerekJ.Penslar(Waltham,MA:BrandeisUniversityPress2005),162-181;164.32Ibid.33MenahemMilson,“TheBeginningsofArabicandIslamicStudiesattheHebrewUniversityinJerusalem,”Judaism45:2(Spring1996),169-183.34SeeinterviewwithZygmuntBaumaninHaaretzMarch201335AugustSchlegel,GeschichtederromantischenLiteratur,37.36LiahGreenfeld,Nationalism:FiveRoadstoModernity(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1992).37ToddKontje,GermanOrientalisms(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,2004).38JosephLennon,IrishOrientalism:ALiteraryandIntellectualHistory(Syracuse,N.Y.:SyracuseUniversityPress,2004),xviii.39JosephLennon,116.40SeamusDeane,CelticRevivals:EssaysinModernIrishLiterature1880-1980(London:FaberandFaber,1985).41TerryEagleton,FredricJameson,EdwardW.Said,eds.,Nationalism,Colonialism,andLiterature.(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1990),81.