Activities and barriers to education for elderly people and barriers to education for elderly people...

10 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 J.Friebeet.al.

Jens Friebe and Bernhard Schmidt-Hertha

Activitiesandbarrierstoeducationforelderlypeople

Abstract: Adulteducationathigheragecanplayanimportantroleinthepreservationofautonomyandintheencouragementofsocialparticipationinlaterlife.Hence,frombothanindividualandsocietalperspective,itisimportanttopromotetheeducationalactivitiesoftheelderly.Activeelderlypeoplewithpositiveperceptionsofselfandageingmaintaintheirmentalandphysicalfitnesslevels,participateincommunityassociationsandpolitics,andengageinintergenerationaldialogue.Datafromarecentstudyclearlyshowtheinterrelationshipofindividualself-perceptionandtheperceptionofageingandpointtotherelevanceofbothconceptsforlearningandparticipatingineducationalactivities.Aspeopleage,theyparticipatelessandlessinfurthereducation.Thisisduenotonlytoindividuallearninghabits,butalsotothelackoflearningopportunitiesindifferentregionsandresidentialareas.Indistrictsthatareprimarilycomprisedofpeoplewithlowstandardsoflivingandloweducationand/ormigrationbackgrounds,thereisalackofsufficienteducationalstructures,whichhindersparticipationinadulteducationprograms.Qualitativeinterviewswitholderadultsindifferentdistrictsshowthatsocialenvironment,socialembeddedness,andindividualperspectivesofone’sownlearningabilitiesaffectlearningpossibilitiesandlearningreadiness.

Key words: perceptionofageing,self-perception,livingconditions,socialenvironment,biography

UDC: 374.7

Scientificarticle

Jens Friebe, Ph.D., Research Associate at the German Institute for Adult Education, Leibniz Centre for Lifelong learning, Heinemannstr. 12-14, 53175 Bonn, Germany; e-mail for correspondence: friebe@die-bonn.de

Bernhard Schmidt-Hertha, Ph.D., University of Tuebingen, Institute for Education, Muenzgasse 11, 72070 Tuebingen, Germany; E-mail for correspondence: bernhard.schmidt-hertha@uni-tuebingen.de

JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013,10–26

Activitiesandbarrierstoeducationforelderlypeople 11

Introduction

Educationalactivitiesduringthelaterstagesoflifeareasignificantpartofdailylivingoftheelderly.Newchallenges,usefulactivitiesandwell-beingatanolderagerequireindividualactivitiesandtheutilizationofpersonalcreativity.Researchonageingshowsgreatinterindividualdifferencebetweenthelivingsituationsandlifestylesoftheelderly.Thesocialdimensionofinequalityhasaparticularinfluenceoneducationalchoices.Ingeneral,atanolderage,issuesofeverydaylifearemetbypotentialsandcompetencies,whichallowforanauto-nomousandsociallyparticipativelife.Thesepotentialscanbedevelopedandsupportedbylocaleducationalprogrammes.Unfortunately,manybarriersimpaireducationalaccessfortheelderlyincludingexteriorbarriers,suchassuitableeducationalinstitutionsandprogrammesfortheelderly,andinteriorbarriers,suchasalackofmotivationandself-confidence.

Thispaperdescribestheeducationalopportunitiesandbarriersforagroupofelderlyindividuals65yearsorolderbasedonthepartialresultsoftheCompeten-ciesinLaterLife(CiLL)researchproject.Inaddition,outcomesoftheEducationforElderly(EdAge)study,conductedbytheLudwig-Maximilians-UniversityinMunichandtheGermanInstituteforAdultEducation,aretakenintoaccount.Significantinfluentialfactorsonthegroup’seducationalbehaviourswerenotedbasedonimagesofageandself-perception,aswellassocio-historicalbackgrounds.Thisinformationcanassistadulteducatorsinthedevelopmentofregionaledu-cationalprogrammeswithandfortheelderly.

Theoretical background: Later life and individual experience

Anageingpopulationisoftenlinkedwithadecreaseinsocialadaptability,butthispointofviewignoresthepotentialandlearningcapabilitiesofolderadults(Baltes1992;Lehr2005).Therefore,itisimportanttosupportthepotentialofolderpeopletoleadactiveandparticipatorylivesthrougheducationandtorecognizethebenefitsoftheirknowledge,experience,andcompetencies.

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Thediscourseonlifelonglearningnecessarilyleadstoquestionsconcerningtheimpactofoldageasaphaseoflifeonthepreservationoflearningabilitiesandcompetencies.Researchonlifelonglearningshowsthattoachievegreaterflexibilityinlifecourses,newstrategiesfortheconstructionandintegrationofknowledgearerequired.Theprerequisitesforthisprocessofactivecompetencydevelopmentarenotthesameamongolderpeople(FindsenandFormosa2011).Theage-basedconfigurationoflivingenvironments,individualhealth,positiveimagesofageing,andacontinuousparticipationinlifelonglearningareimportantfactorsinenablingoldermenandwomentomaintainindependentlifestyles.

Retirementchangesfromalifephaseofconsumptionandleisuretimetoaphaseofsocietalparticipation.Copingwithage-relateddevelopmentaltasksbecomesanincreasinglyimportantissueinoldage(Kruse2008).Takingpartingainfulemploymentandcivicengagement,aswellassupportingone’sownfamily,allowsolderpeopletoparticipateinsociety.Adulteducationplaysanimportantroleindevelopingtheabilitiesandthemotivationforsocialcommitmentinoldage.Olderpeoplewithmoreeducationandthosewhomoreoftenparticipateinadulteducationprogramsoftenshowahigherdegreeofcommitment.Theoppositealsoholdstrue;civicorsocialengagementcantriggerlearningprocessesifolderadultsareconfrontedwithnewchallengesandcompetencydemandsthroughtheseactivities(Tippeltetal.2009).

Educationnotonlycreatesprerequisitesforparticipationindifferentfieldsofsociallife;itisalsothefirststeptowardanactiveprocessofageing.Therefore,weareinneedofresearchfocusingontheequalityorinequalityofopportunitiesforolderpeopletoparticipateinadulteducationthatalsotakesintoaccountregionalandindividualdifferences.

However,educationalactivities fortheelderlyarehighlydependentontheirdifferentbiographicalandsocialcircumstances.Educationalinterestsandlearningattitudesareaffectedbyearlyeducationalexperiencesgainedinschoolorduringvocationaltrainingandbypreviousadulteducationactivities(Schmidt2007).Opportunitiestoparticipateinformalandnonformallearninghavebeenandstillarehighlydivergentfordifferentgenerationsandforpeoplefromdif-ferentsocialbackgrounds(Schmidt-Hertha,inpress).Thisiswhynotonlyanindividualbiography,butalsotheconditionsofbasiceducation(schoolsystem,educationalinfrastructure,authoritarianteachers,etc.)specifictoeachgenera-tioninfluenceboththewillingnesstoparticipateinlifelonglearningandlearningabilities,eveninolderage.Commongenerationalexperiences,asanchoredinthehistoricalandculturalbackground(Mannheim1928),probablyaffectindividualperceptionsofageingjustasindividuals’biographiesandcurrentlivingconditionsdo.Self-perceptionandindividualimagesofageingareimportantindicatorsforeducationalactivitiesandshouldalsobeseenasproductsofbiographicalexperi-ences,individuallivingconditions,andcultural-historicalcontexts(deGracioetal.2004;LevyandSchlesinger2005).Thiscomplexinteractionofsocialenviron-ment,individualresources,beliefs,attitudes,andeducationalbehaviourcannotbeexplainedinsimplecausalities;rather,itrequiresanin-depthanalysisthatcanbeprovidedusingaqualitativeapproach.

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Furthermore,researchonperceptionsofagehasrevealedaninterrelationbetweennegativestereotypesaboutageingandself-perceptionsinolderage.Thetheoryofself-stereotypingisbasedontheassumptionthatnegativeimagesofageingare,atleastpartly,transferredtoindividualself-perceptionasanindi-vidualages(Levy2003).Eventhoughonlyminordifferencesinimagesofageingbetweenyoungerandolderadultshavebeenidentified,theirideasaboutageingseemtobecomeoperativeonceadultscountthemselvesamongtheelderly.Generalstereotypesarethentransferredmoreorlessunmodifiedtoone’sownself-concept(seeibid.).Theperceptionofindividualgainsandlossesrelatedtoageisbiasedinthesensethatitbecomesaself-fulfillingprophecy(Merton1948),particularlywhenexpectedlossesareoverratedandgainsgounnoticed.Nevertheless,studiesshowthatself-stereotypingisonlyoneaspectthathelpsexplainthedevelop-mentofperceptionsofageingamongolderadults;psychologicalwell-beingandsatisfactionwithone’shealthareotherinteractingfactors(Schmitt2004).Theinterrelationbetweenwell-being,subjectiveevaluationofhealth,andperceptionofageingseemstobeareciprocalone.Asimilarinteractionhasalsobeennotedamongself-concept,self-perception,andperceptionofageing.Thereisevidencethatperceptionofageingaffectsthesefactors(e.g.,Oryetal.2003),asitisfortheconversecausality(deGracioetal.2004;RothermundandBrandtstädter2003).Basedontheresultsofthesestudies,theconceptofself-fulfillingpropheciescouldbeagoodvehicletoexplaintheinteractionsdiscovered.

Empirical background: The Competencies in Later Life study

Attheendof2009,theresearchprojectCompetencies in Later Life(CiLL)waslaunchedinGermanytoexaminethecompetenciesofolderadultsandtheirlearningactivitiesandtoexploretheinterrelationofthesefactors.Livingcondi-tions,socialnetworks,challengesofeverydaylife,andeducationalbiographiesoftheolderadultswerealsotakenintoaccount.Thestudy,whichiscurrentlyongoing,focusesonagroupofadults65to80yearsoldandcombinesaquantita-tiveassessmentofadultcompetencieswithqualitativecasestudies.Thestudyismeanttoprovideinformationonthecompetencydemandsinlaterlifeandonthegainsandlossesinthesecompetenciesinoldagewithrespecttocurrentlivingconditionsandbiographicalexperiences.

Thecoreofthestudywasformedusingacombinationofquantitativeas-sessmentsandquestionnairesandqualitativecasestudiesflankedbyin-depthinternationaldesktopresearch.Themainchallengeofthecasestudiesistolinktheresultswithenquiriesofformerstudies–especiallytheEdAgestudyandtheAdultEducationSurvey–andtofundamentallycomparethemtoresultsstem-mingfromthequantitativecompetencyassessment.Inthispaper,wewouldliketofocusonthequalitativepartofthestudy,whichconsistsof42casestudiesofolderadultswithdifferentlivingconditions.

Themainpurposeofthecasestudiesistogatherdataonlivingconditions,onolderadults’everydaylifestyles,andontheneedforspecificcompetenciesarising

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fromtheindividuallifestylesandattitudes.Thequalitativecasestudiesmakeuseofthecase-reconstructiveresearchstrategy(Hildenbrand1991),focusingontherelationbetweengeneralandparticularelementsofeverysinglecase.Thepro-cessesofstrugglingwitheverydaypracticaldemandsandchallenges,individualselection,andinterpretationformthestructureofacase.Thisstructureincludesabasichabitualwayoflookingatone’sworld,ofinterpretingit,andofactinginandinteractingwiththisworld.

Inordertogaindeeperinsightintothisworldoflearningprocessesandcom-petencyrequirementsembeddedindailyroutinesorinitiatedbycriticaleventsinlife,adescriptivequalitativeanalysisusingthemethodofcontentanalysisdevel-opedbyMayring(2003)wascarriedout.Theinterviewswerefullytranscribed,andacomplextheoreticallysoundsystemofcodingwasdeveloped.Subsequently,eachcodingwasattachedtothematerial.Inordertoverifytheaccuracyoftheintercoderagreementresp.interpretiveconvergence(Saldana2008,p.27),someinterviewswereanalyzedbythreeormoreresearchers,andmorethanhalfoftheinterviewswereanalyzedbeatleasttworesearchers.Whendealingwiththetranscriptions,additionalcodesweredevelopedandotherswerepooledorchanged.Finally,asystemof47codeswasappliedtoall42interviews.

TheCiLLstudyalsoincludesastudyparalleltotheGermanProgramforInternationalAssessmentofAdultCompetenciesProgram.PIAACwasorganizedbytheOECDtoassessthelevelanddistributionofadultskillsinthreecompetencydomainsforadultsupto64yearsoldin23countries(Literacy,Numeracy … 2012).CiLLprovidesanadditionalsampleforthe65-to80-year-oldadultsinGermanyusingthesamemethodstodeliverdatainawaythatiscoherentandconsistenttotheGermanPIAACsample.PIAACusesarepresentativesample,andthis,ofcourse,shouldalsoholdforthesampleofthe66-to80-year-oldadults.

Atotalof3,600seniorcitizensin111municipalitieswererandomlyselectedfromlistsheldatGermanregistrationoffices.NinetyTNSInfratestinterviewerswereactivenationwide,and1,325interviewswereconducted,whichequalsaresponserateof38%.ThedataforCiLLwerecollectedusinganelaborateback-groundquestionnaire,whichcoveredsocio-demographicdataandinformationoneducationalandqualificationprocesses,aswellaslabourstatus(includingpreviousemployment).Subsequently,PIAACincludedthreecentraladultcom-petencedomains: literacy,numeracy,andproblem-solvingintechnology-richenvironments.Respondentswithcomputerskillsansweredthetestquestionsbyuseofalaptop;allotherrespondentswereissuedtestbooklets.Almost30%oftheelderlyrespondentschosethecomputerforansweringthequestions.ToensuretheinternationalcomparabilityofthePIAACstudy,includingtheadditionalsampleofolderadults,neitherthequestionnairenorthecompetencytestscanberead-justedforthesampleofthoseaged66to80.ThedesignofPIAACwasarrangedinsuchawaythatexactlythesameprogramwithexactlythesameinstrumentswasadministeredinallparticipatingcountriesinordertoavoidallpossiblebiaseffects.Currently,thequantitativestepoftheresearchprojectisinthedatacol-lectionphase,butresultswillnotbereadyuntil2014.

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IthasnotyetbeendecidedwhetherthePIAACwillbecontinuedafterthisfirstsurvey.Apanelstudyonthecompetenciesofadultswouldbeofparticularvaluetoeducationalresearchbecauseitwouldprovideindicatorstodifferentiateageeffects,cohorteffects,andperiodicaleffectsonthecompetenciesofadults.Forresearchontheparticipationofolderadultsineducationandinlearning,itwouldbeofgreatimportancetorelinquishtheestablishedfocusonthelabourforceandtosystematicallyincludepeopleabovetheageof64,notonlyinindividualnationalsurveys,butalsointheinternationalstudies.

Self-perception and images of ageing and their meaning for learning and competency development

Dependingontheirperceptionsoftheirownlearningcapabilitiesandtheirpotentialforpersonaldevelopment,adultsaremoreorlessopentonewlearningexperiencesandwillingtogetinvolvedineducationalprocesses.Thisfurtherdependsontheirself-perceptionandwhethertheyseethemselvesasactivedesignersoftheirownenvironmentoraspowerlessvictimsoftheirfate(Cross1981).Ofcourse,therearesomemorepredictorsforeducationalbehaviour,suchassituationalfactors,currentcircumstancesofliving,structureofofferingsandeducationalbarriers,socialandvocationalbackground,andnotonlyage.Withoutafundamentalunderstandingofone’sowneducationalcapabilitiesandabeliefinthepoweroflearningtowidenone’scapabilitytoact,participationineducationalactivitiesanddirectedcompetencydevelopmentareveryunlikely.Therefore,therelevanceofpersonalperceptionsofselfandageingtolearninganddevelopmentoftheelderlyisclearbutremainsascientificallyunexploredarea.

Accordingtothe6thReportonAgeingcoordinatedbytheGermangovernment,theartofliving,subjectivewell-being,readinessforsocialengagement,andopen-nesstoeducationalopportunitiesandlearningpossibilitiesarehighlydependentonone’sself-perceptionandimagesrelatedtoageasaphaseoflife(e.g.,WurmandHuxhold2012).Inotherwords,imagesofageingseemtobeaffectedbyone’sprecedingeducationalexperiences,biography,socialcircumstances,andcurrentlivingconditions.Ifsubjectiveideasofageinginfluencethewillingnessofolderadultstoparticipateinnonformalorinformallearningandiftheseideasevenfitwiththemostimportantpredictorsforeducationalparticipationofolderadults(Tippelt,SchmidtandKuwan2009),thenpossibilitiesofcompetencedevelopmentinhigheragearealsolimitedorbroadenedbythem.Inretrospect,theinfluenceofprecedingeducationalexperiencesonself-perceptionandagestereotypescausesonetoexpectamorepositiveperceptionofselfandageforpersonswithhigherlevelsofcompetence(Schmidt-HerthaandMühlbauer2012).However,whichfieldsofcompetenciescouldplayaroleinthisrelationshipandhowfarthesecompetenciescouldbealteredremainunclear.

Theoretically,therearestrongargumentsforaconnectionbetweencompeten-cies,competencydevelopment,andlearninginolderage,aswellasperceptionsofselfandone´sownageingprocess(Schmidt2010).However,notenoughempirical

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evidenceforthiscorrelationhasbeencollectedsofar.Thecausality,inparticular,remainsunclear,andalthoughcomplexinterdependenciesaretobeexpected,theyhavenotbeenexplored.

Onedevelopmentthatclearlypointstothesignificanceofself-perceptionsforlearningactivitiesisPatriciaCross’(1981)chain-of-responsemodel,whichindicatesthatindividualself-evaluationisthefirstcentralstepintheprocessofmakingeducationaldecisions.Evenbeforeattitudestowardeducation,currentinterests,aims,andlearningopportunitiesbecomeimportantforparticipationornonparticipation inadulteducationprograms,theperceptionofpersonallearningabilitiesandlearningstylesiscrucialforthedecisioneitherinfavouroforagainstpursuingfurtherlearning.Whenitcomestotheelderly,imagesofageingarehighlyrelevanttotheevaluationofone’sownlearningabilities,asisself-perceptionforallagegroups.

Ourqualitativeinterviewsprovideaninformativebasisforanalyzingtheinteractionofimagesofageing,perceptionofolderageasaphaseoflife,andself-concept,aswellastherealizationoflearningpossibilities.Onlysomeexplorativeapproachesaregivenhere,providingdirectionandstimuliforfurtherresearch.

Self-perception and perception of ageing

Firstly,statementsrelatedtoself-perceptionandself-conceptandstatementsrelatedtoperceptionofageinghavebeendifferentiated.Bothkindsofstatementsarebynomeansindependentfromeachother,butwithinoursample,wefoundsomeparticipantswhoseideasabouthigherageasaphaseoflifewere(still)onlyverylooselyrelatedtotheirownpersonalityandself-perceptionandsomepar-ticipantswhonoticedcharacteristicsandprocesseswithintheirownpersonalitythattheycouldtracebacktohigherageandthatcouldaffecttheirself-perceptionatleastinsofarastheydifferentiatedbetweenthepresentandthepastwhenitcametodescribingtheirownpersonalityandsociallocalization.Thestatementsofolderrespondentswithastronglinktoself-perceptionpointtothreegroupswithverydifferentself-concepts.Thegroupshavebeenidentifiedbyacomparativeanalysisoftheinterviewsandfollowingtheprinciplesofmaximumhomogeneitywithinthegroupsandamaximumheterogeneitybetweenthem.However,whatwedescribeinthefollowingsectioncanbeseenasempiricallybasedidealtypesinthetraditionofMaxWeber(1922;seealsoSchmidtandTippelt2011).

– Themakerssawthemselvesastheonestobringthingsforward,whoinitiateinnovation,andwhomakedecisions.Withinthisrole,theyexperiencedthesignificanceoftheirownpersonintheirprivateand(former)vocationalenvironment.Theyoftendescribedthemselvesastalentedinseveralareas,competentindifferentfieldsofapplication,andsuccessfulinacting.Thereweremaleandfemaleseniorsofdifferentagesanddifferentlevelsofschoolinginthisgroup.Overall,itseemsthatself-perceptionispoorlyrelatedwithsocio-demographicvariables.

Activitiesandbarrierstoeducationforelderlypeople 17

– Thehelperssawthemselvesnotsomuchastheonestoinitiatechanges,butasfacilitatorsandhelpersinthebackground,whichisanecessaryroletokeepthingsfunctioningsmoothly.Hardworkandahighlevelofaltruismwerefundamentaldescriptionsoftheirself-perception.Accordingtotheseparticipants,iftheyareunabletohelpothers,thentheyneedtoprovideanexcuse,evenifthereasonsarerelatedtohealthproblems.Incontrasttothemakers,thepredominantlyfemalehelpersalsosharedathemeofsettinglimitsoftheirowncapabilities.

– Finally,weidentifiedagroupofolderadultswhocouldbecharacterizedasdrivenbycircumstances.Theydescribedtheirformerandcurrentbehaviourasamoreorlessreactiveresponsestodifficultsituationsandproblematicbreaksintheirlives.Theseparticipantsstatedthattheyusuallysaweventsastroublesomenecessitiestomaintaintheirstandardofliving.Theyreferredtotheirownweaknessesanddeficitsmuchmoreoftenthantheothergroups;theyalsocomplainedaboutalackofself-confidence.

Someoftheintervieweespointedoutthepositiveaspectsofageingingeneralandespeciallyinrelationtopersonalage,whileothersfocusedonthenegativeaspectsofageingorshowedanambivalentperceptionofage.Atfirstglance,norelationshipisseenbetweenperceptionsofageingandself-perception.Whileper-sonswithapositiveconceptofageingratedphysicaldeclineaslessrelevantbutstressedthequalityandbenefitsofoldage,otherswithamorenegativeconceptofageingsawphysicaldeclineasthebeginningofasteadyandirreversibledevelop-ment.Anambivalentconceptofageingwascharacterizedbythesimultaneityofdevelopmentalgainsandlosses.Intervieweeswithanambivalentperceptionofoldageparticularlypointedtotheireffortstopreventfurthercognitiveandphysicaldecline.Thisattitude,whichstressesthenecessityandeffectivenessofdifferentkindsofpreventiveactivities,seemstobepartoftheageingconceptssharedbymanyolderadults(Schmidt2010)butisacentralfocusforpersonswithanambi-valentperceptionofoldage.Incontrast,thelinktoaspecialqualityofhigheragecanprimarilybefoundamongadultswithapositiveperceptionofageing.Mostparticipantswithanegativeperceptionofageingemphasizedtheirreversibilityofdeclineinoldage.Onceagain,theredidnotappeartobeanysystematicdif-ferencesbetweenthethreeapproachestoageingandtheinterviewees’sex,age,familystatus,orlevelofschooling.

Asynopsisofthedifferentperceptionsofselfandageingwasperformedfor26intervieweesinreferencetobothconcepts,whilecommentsfrom18furtherintervieweescouldonlybededicatedtooneornoneoftheconcepts.Table1showsthedifferentcombinationsofself-perceptionandimagesofageing,astheycanbefoundintheempiricalmaterial.

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Maker Helper DrivenPositiveperceptionofageing 4 – –Ambivalentperceptionofageing 4 9 3Negativeperceptionofageing 4 1 1

Table 1: Allocation of self-perception and perception of ageing within the interviews

Withinthegroupofhelpersandthegroupofthedrivenolderadults,anambivalentperceptionofageingwasdominant.Incontrast,themakersshowednodominantorientationwhenlookingattheir imageofageing.Asthelinesbetweenthedifferentconceptsofageingcannotbedrawnstrictlyselectively,apartialaggregationofdifferentcombinationsseemstobejustifiablewhenitistakenintoaccountthatdifferencesbetweenthefouraggregatedgroupsareallthemorevisible.

Self-perception and learning

Withinthegroupofmakers withapositiveperceptionofageing,onlytheolderparticipantswhoperceivedthemselvestostillbeactivedesignersindicatedthattheysometimesmadeuseoforganizededucationalprograms.Theintervieweessoughtlearninginadulteducationcentres(Volkshochschulen),third-ageuniversi-ties,andothersimilaradulteducationagenciesaswellasthroughself-regulatedlearningactivitiesusingdifferentformsofmedia(e.g.,theInternetorbooks)andinteractingwiththeirsocialenvironment.Thesekindsofinformallearningareoftenrelatedtodailylifeproblemsbutcanalsostemfromaninterestinacertaintopic.Theseinterestsusuallyresultfromasearchfornewchallengesorarecompletelyindependentfromcurrentdemandsofaction.

The makers withanegativeperceptionofageingprimarilyfocusedonthepastandexclusivelyidentifiedinformalcontextsaslearningopportunities.Onceagain,interactionswithfriendsandrelativesandespeciallytheuseofmediawerecentralfortheirlearning.Inparticular,booksandtelevisionwerementionedinwhichthecontenthadacloserelationtodailylifebutwasnotalwayslinkedtoaparticularproblem.

Forthehelpers, learningwas linkedtoeffortandhardwork.Theysawlearningasanabsolutelynecessaryinvestmentoftimeandpowerforsolvingcurrentproblems.Learningheremeansself-directedlearning,oftenbytrialanderror(e.g.,whendealingwithnewtechnologiesandmachines).Afterthesegoal-orientedformsoflearning,whicharerelatedtosituationalchallenges,incidentallearningthenplaysanimportantroleinincreasingtheirowncapacitytoact.

Incidentalandnonintentionalformsoflearning(seealsoDohmen2001,p.44)dominatedthelearningactivitieswithinthegroupofthedrivens.Respondentsonlymentionedinformallearningthat,inmostcases,wasnotinitiatedconsciously.Inthiscontext,learningseemstobenomorethanabyproductofproblem-solving,inwhichlearnersseethemselvesasreactingtoacertainsituation,butnotcon-structivelyarrangingit.

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Analysisofthequalitativeinterviewswitholderadultscannotverifytherela-tionshipbetweenperceptionofageingandself-perceptionasdocumentedinotherstudies(e.g.,RothermundandBrandstaedter,2003)forseveralreasons,suchasthecross-sectionaldesign.However,interactionshavebecomevisiblethatpointtoadifferentrelevanceoftheperceptionofageingdependingonone’sself-perception.Inparticular,olderadultswhosawthemselvesasactivedesignersoftheirlivingenvironmentshowedastrongerbackwardorientationwhentheyhavenegativeimagesofageandageing.Thisgrouptendedtoprimarilyconnectself-perceptionandself-confidencetoactivitiesandoccurrencesinthepast.Theyexperiencedtheircurrentphaseoflifeasaslowandunintendedwithdrawalfrombeingacentralactorintheirsocialandprofessionalfield.Incontrast,self-perceptioninothergroupsseemedtobeinfluencedlessbyperceptionsofageingiftheindividualssawthemselvesmoreasfacilitatorsorinapassiveroleindifferentcontextsofdailylife.Nevertheless,thisisprimarilydescriptiveevidencewithveryinitialresults;closeranalysiswithalongitudinaldimensionisneeded.

Furtherdataanalysisshowsthatopportunitiesandstrategiestodevelopcompetenciesareonlypartlyrelatedtoperceptionsofselfandageing.Thisrela-tionshipseemstobemediatedbylifestyleandthehandlingofdailychallenges.Theolderadultswhostillsawthemselvesascentralprotagonistsintheirlivingenvironmentwereautonomouslylookingfornewchallengesandfieldsoflearningthatwerelinkedtotheircompetencies.Otherssawthemselvesconfrontedwithtasksrelatedtolearningandcompetencedevelopmentwhentheygaveahelpinghandasfacilitatorsintheirsocialproximity.Incontrast,olderadultswhosawthemselvesasvictimsoflifecircumstancesorwhohadnegativeagestereotypesandwerefocusedontheirowndevelopmentallossestendedtoavoidnewterrain,preferringtomovewithinsurroundingstheywerefamiliarwith.Forthem,thismeansaminimumofrisksbutalsoaminimumofnewlearningopportunities.

Themotivesforthisbehaviourremainunclear.Further,ourdatacannottellushowfarexistingcompetenciesanddevelopmentalpotentialinfluenceone’slifestyleorifcompetencydevelopmentinhigherageistheproductofanactivelifestyle.Anotherunresolvedquestioniswhetherpositiveperceptionsofselfandageingaccountforalifestylethatpromotesdevelopmentalgainsoriftheseposi-tiveperceptionsaretheproductofanindividuallifestyle.Otherstudiespointtoareciprocalrelationbetweenperceptionsofageingandlifestyle(Schmidt-HerthaandMühlbauer2012;SachverständigenkommissionAltenberichterstattung2010)aswellastoarelationshipbetweenlifestyleandcompetencydevelopmentintheelderly(Kruse2010;Tippeltetal.2009).Anunderstandingofself-perceptionsandpersonalimagesofageinginthecontextoflearningandcompetencydevelopmenthastobetakenintoaccountwhenitcomestointerpretingtheresultsofcompe-tencyassessments.Eveniftheresultspresentedhavetofirstbeconsideredfromanexplorativeapproach,theyprovidevaluableevidencefortakingacloserlookatperceptionsofselfandageingineducationalresearch.

Ithasbecomeevidentthatperceptionsofageingarenotonlyaproductofindividualbiographyandlifestyle,butarealsoinfluencedbyculturalandhistoricalbackgrounds.ThesamplefromtheCiLLstudywascomprisedofagenerationof

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adultswhowerebornbeforeorduringWorldWarIIandwhowereassumedtohavecommonattitudesandinterpretationpatterns(Mannheim1928);thiscom-monalitymayalsoinfluenceperceptionsofselfandageing.

Educational behaviour of older adults with regard to social and historical development

IntherandomsamplesfromtheCiLLstudy,participantsbetweentheagesof66and80wereinterviewed(thosebornbetween1931and1946).Thoseinthisagegroupweresignificantlycharacterizedbythehistoriceventsduringthewarandpost-warperiods.Agenerationaleffectwasapparentthatcouldbedescribedas“warandpost-warchildren”(Radebold2005).Therefore,a“socio-historicalgene-rationterm”(Franz2011)wasusedforcharacterizingthisparticularagegroup.

Historical background

Intheearly1930s,largepartsofGermany’sworkingclasssankintopovertyasaresultoftheGreatDepressionandhighratesofunemployment.Politically,theeconomicsituationpavedthegroundfortheupcomingNationalSocialisteraandHitler’sassumptionofpowerin1933.ThetotalitarianregimeannihilateditsopponentsandtriggeredWorldWarIIwiththeinvasionofPoland.Theeducationalsystemwaspushedasidetofocusonwarinterests.Theoldergenerationquestionedinthestudywerechildrenduringthesewaryears.TheyheardofthedeathsoftheirrelativesandenduredairraidsonGermancitiesin1943.Startingin1944,awaveofrefugeesleftGermanyandoccupiedEasternterritories.TheGermanpopulationinRussia,Poland,andCzechoslovakiawasparticularlyaffected,andmanyGermansescapedfromEasttoWestGermany.TheyoungerparticipantsoftheCiLLstudywerebornafterGermanysurrendered,buttheirearlylivingenvironmentwasalsocharacterizedbythedistressandruinofpost-warGermany.

Afterthewarended,lifeintheFederalRepublicofGermanywasverydifferentthanlifeintheGermanDemocraticRepublic.Withalliedhelp,WestGermanyexperiencedaneconomicrecovery,whereasEastGermanyfacedalackofconsumergoodsandemigration.TheeducationalsystemsinWestandEastGermanyalsodivergedconsiderably.Thesurveyedgenerationstartedtheirprofessionalliveswithlittleformaleducation.Schoolsanduniversitieswerenotinoperationduringthelastwaryearsandrightafterthewarasthebuildingshadbeendestroyedandtherewasalackofteachingstaff.Reconstructionrequiredmanyspecialists,whowereoftenonlysemi-skilledorhadbecomequalifiedafterashorttrainingperiod.Manyparticipantsofthesurveyedgroupsuccessfullyheldimportantpositionswithoutadequateformalqualification.Inthelate1950s,educationalexpansioninWestGermanyrestrengthenedtheconnectionbetweeneducationandprofessionalcareers.Thesurveyedgroupenjoyedfairlysecurepositionsintimesoffullemploymentandwaslittleaffectedbytheupcomingeconomiccrisisduringthe1970sand1980s.Unemploymentwascontrolledbyretiringworkers

Activitiesandbarrierstoeducationforelderlypeople 21

earlywithatransitionalagreementattheageof55,firstinWestGermanyandlaterinEasternGermanyaswell.

Intheirlateprofessionalyearsandduringretirement,thesurveyedparti-cipantswerefarlessactiveeducationallyincomparisontoyoungerpeople.TheReportingSystemonContinuingEducationconfirmsthatthistrendwascommoninWestGermany(RosenbladtandBilger2008,p.227).However,ageisnottheonlyreasonforalowlevelofparticipationincontinuingeducation.Theeducationalbehaviourofseniorcitizensprovestoberathercomplex.Schoolqualificationsandprofessionalpositionsstronglyinfluenceparticipationincontinuingeducation.Thosebetweentheagesof55and64withalowlevelofeducationaland/orpro-fessionalqualificationsrarelyparticipateincontinuingeducation(Tippeltetal.2009,p.57).Womenareparticularlyunderrepresentedinvocationalcontinuingeducation(ibid,p.43)orstatethattheirparticipationincontinuingeducationisimpairedbydomestictasks(KollandandAhmadi2010,p.60).Educationalbehaviouris influencedbysocio-historicaldevelopmentaswellasbiographicfactors.InmanyinterviewsconductedduringtheCiLLstudy,theimportanceofstartingafamilyandthebirthofchildrenandgrandchildrenwasemphasized.Livingsituationandcriticaleventswerealsoregardedassignificantinfluencesonlearninginoldage.

Current life situations and barriers to continuing education

Gerontologyfrequentlypointsoutthesignificantindividualdifferencesoflifesituationsandlifestylesoftheelderly(Backesetal.2004).Lifeandeducationalbehaviourinoldagearenotonlyinfluencedbysocialdifferences,butalsobyin-equalities.Alongwitheducationalparticipation,necessaryresourcesforindividualadaptation,aswellastheadaptationoftheenvironment,tocriticaleventsvary.Thetopics“turningpointinlife,”“criticallifeevents,”and“crises”wereincludedintheCiLLsurvey.Turningpoints,suchasretirementorthechild-carephase–wereseenaslessburdensomethancriticallifeevents.Criticallifeeventswereoftenrelatedtothelossofcloserelationships,suchasthroughillnessordeathofalifepartner.Criticallifeeventsruntheriskofturningintoasignificantlifecrisisiftherespondentbecomesillorneedy.Singleandchildlessseniorcitizens(Schnurr2010)areparticularlyvulnerableforcriseswhenevertheirsocialnet-workbecomesbrittle.Inthiscontext,thefamilylivingsituationisanessentialfactorofcoping.Manyrespondentsstressedtheimportanceofmaintainingtheirfamilycontacts,andseniorcitizensinnursinghomesparticularlycomplainedabouttheirlivingsituations.

Incomparisontoyoungeragegroups,seniorcitizensaremorelikelytobeconfrontedwithcircumstancesthatinhibitanindependentlifestyle(Sachverstän-digenkommissionAltenberichterstattung2010).ThreetypicalriskconstellationsaredepictedbasedonthevoluntaryinformationsurveyedintheCiLLstudy–thelivingsituationofseniorcitizens,materialchanges,andneedforcare.Continuingeducationcanplayanimportantroleintheproblem-solvingprocessindifferentlifesituations.

22 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 J.Friebeet.al.

– Livingspaceandenvironmentbecomeincreasinglysignificantatanolderageduetodecreasingmobilityandtheresultingincreasingimportanceofaccessibilityofservicestructures.Socialinteractionsoftenoccurwithinthelivingquartersatthepolitical,social,leisure,andeducationallevels.Inthissituation,therisksaresocialexclusion(Kronauer2010)andthateducationalactivitiesareoftendistributedratherdifferentlydependingonthelivingareainacity,district,orsocialquarter.

– Theearlyexclusionofseniorcitizensfromtheworkprocess,theincreasedretirementage,andtemporaryunemploymenthavenegativeeffectsonreti-rementincome.Asaresult,impoverishmentamongtheelderlywilllikelyincreaseoverthecomingyearsandleadtonumerousdisadvantages,whicharelikelytohaveanegativeeffectoneducationalparticipation(Friebe2010).

– Ageoftenalsoholdstheriskofillness,physicalimpairment,andtheneedforcare.Thesesituationsalsoendangersocialinclusionandbeartheriskoftheelderlybeingunabletocopewiththesevariousburdens.Socialcontactsarereduced,suchasinthecaseofdementia,notonlyfortheindividual,butalsoforhisorherfamily.Familieswithsufficientfinancialsupportcantakeadvantageofexternalsupportandprovideopportunitiesfortheelderlyindividualtoparticipatemoreoftenineducationalevents.

Thelifeconstellationsmentionedoftenserveasbarrierstoeducationalpar-ticipationfortheelderly(RosenbladtandBilger2008,p.151).Theirfinancialsitu-ation,aswellasalackofinformationandcompetency,canintensifytheproblemsassociatedwitholdage.Still,whiletheselifeconstellationshaverisks,theyalsoofferopportunitiesofinclusionforseniorcitizens.Livinginestablishedworking-classneighbourhoodscanprovidemoreresources,suchasmutualsupportandlearning,thanlivinginnewlybuiltdevelopments.Dealingwithissuesofmaintaininghealthcanprovideasignificantincentivefordiscoveringnewwaysoflearningandauto-didacticactivities.Thereflectionofthementionedself-imagesandimagesofagecanrevealtherangeofactivitiesinoldage.Insummary,thismeansthatseniorcitizensaremorevulnerabletorisksofexclusion(Kruse2008,p.23),butatthesametime,theystillhavepotentialforinclusionandimprovededucationalactivities.

Practical perspectives and conclusion

Anindividual’shistoricalandsocialbackgroundandhisorherlivingspaceinfluencelearningandcompetencydevelopmentinallstagesoflifeandarepar-ticularlyimportantinhigherage.“Thelocationofageingcontributessignificantlytotheconditionofageing”(KockaandStaudinger2009,p.65).Socialparticipationoftenoccursinone’simmediatelivingenvironmentatpolitical,social, leisure,andeducationallevels.Beingawareofthebarriersthatoftenimpaireducationalparticipationoftheelderlyisvaluabletoeducationalplannersandlecturersofadulteducation.Thefollowingconclusionscanbedrawnforcontinuingeducationoftheelderly:

Activitiesandbarrierstoeducationforelderlypeople 23

– Reflectionontheelderly’ssocio-historicbackgroundrevealsthesocializingexpe-riencesofthisagegroupandformsthebasisforintergenerationaleducationalprogrammesthatmeettheneedsoftheageingprocess(Antzetal.2009).Itisalsoimportanttobeawareofthepastexperiencesoftheseniorcitizensbyexa-mininghistoricalevents;i.e.,ascontemporarywitnessesinpoliticaleducation.

– Imagesofagecontainexperiencesofcertaingroupsofseniorcitizensthatinfluenceeducationalbehaviour.Itistheobligationofeducationalproviderstonotonlyconsidertheexpectationsandfearsoftheirtargetgroupandtomakeageimagesthesubjectoftheirprogrammes,butalsotoutilizetheseimagesofagetoavoidexcludingacertainagegroup.

– Thephaseofoldageisobviouslycharacterizedbyanextremelyheterogeneousnatureandlargelydivergenteducationalprerequisitesduetothelifelongaccumulationofculturalcapital(Blossfeld,RossbachandMaurice2011).Asaresult,thefieldofcontinuingeducationneedstoprovideawiderangeofprogrammesasitrunstheriskofonlyfocusingonseniorcitizenswhovaluecontinuingeducation.

– Publiceducationalorganizationsshouldalsotargeteducationallydisa-dvantagedseniorcitizens.Programmesthatareeasilyaccessibleandfreeofchargecanbeattractivefortheelderly.Theirlivingenvironments,suchastheirneighbourhoods,canberegardedasacentreforpromotingeducationalactivities(FriebeandHülsmann2011).

Generally,inlinewiththehigherlifeexpectancy,opportunitiestoparticipateineducationalprogrammesandtocreateindividuallearningprocessesinoldageareincreasing.Unfortunately,somesocialgroupsdonotyethaveaccesstoedu-cationalprogrammes(BremerandKleemann-Göhring2010).Forthesegroups,neweducationalprogrammesneedtobedevelopedtoopenupeducationalinsti-tutionstoseniorcitizens,providedidacticssuitablefortheelderly(Nuissl2008),andincludeopportunitiesforparticipation.Theobjectiveistodevelopconceptsof“goodlifeinoldage”(SachverständigenkommissionAltenberichterstattung2010,p.423),whicharecombinedwiththeideaofalearningcommunity.Strategiesfor“learninginlaterlife”mightbesuccessfulifsomecriteriaareestablished.Forexample,educationmustbeaccessible,includinggeographicproximitytothelivingareaofthetargetedgroup,barrier-freeaccessibility,andlowparticipationfees.Tofacilitateeducationalaccess,theprogrammescheduleandtopicsneedstobeadjustedtolineupwiththeagegroup’srequirementsandinterests.Themosteffectiveaccessisgainedthroughspecialconfidantsandword-of-mouth.Sotheoffershavetobe“transparent”.Programmesfortheelderly,especiallyforeducationallydisadvantagedindividuals,havetoberecognizableinthelocalcommunity.Theconventionalinformationexchange(printedprogrammes,flyer,pressrelease)doesnotreachthetargetgroup.Finally“networking”ofvariousstakeholdersisparticularlyimportant.Thecooperationofvariouslocalprotagonistscontributestoalargerdistributionoftheprogrammes.Inaddition,linkingvariousprogrammesacrosstargetgroupsallowsforintergenerationalandinterculturalencountersandlearningprocesses.

24 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 J.Friebeet.al.

Insummary,onecouldsaythateducationalbehaviour isaproductofimpartialconditionsoflivingandthesubjectiveperceiveddevelopmentofone-self.Nevertheless,individualperceptionsofone’slivingconditionscannotreducethedetrimentalrolethatsocialinjusticeandinequalityplayinallstagesoflife(BlossfeldRossbachandMaurice2011).Educationalpolicy,aswellascontinuingeducationpractice,cancontributetopreparingforthechallengesofalong-livingsociety.Maintainingautonomy,theprovisionofguidelinesandthedevelopmentofnewperspectivesinthethirdandfourthphaseoflifeforwhichnewpatternsneedtobefound,isessentialfortheindividualsandthesociety.

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