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Actinorhizal root nodule symbioses: what is signalling telling onthe origins of nodulation?Sergio Svistoonoff 1, Valerie Hocher1 and Hassen Gherbi1
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Two groups of bacteria are able to induce the formation of
nitrogen-fixing nodules: proteobacteria called rhizobia, which
associate with Legumes or Parasponia and actinobateria from
the genus Frankia which are able to interact with �220 species
belonging to eight families called actinorhizal plants. Legumes
and different lineages of actinorhizal plants differ in bacterial
partners, nodule organogenesis and infection patterns and
have independent evolutionary origins. However, recent
technical achievements are revealing a variety of conserved
signalling molecules and gene networks. Actinorhizal
interactions display several primitive features and thus provide
the ideal opportunity to determine the minimal molecular toolkit
needed to build a nodule and to understand the evolution of
root nodule symbioses.
Addresses
Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement (IRD), Unite mixte de
recherche DIADE, 911 Avenue Agropolis, BP 64501, 34394 Montpellier
Cedex 5, France
Corresponding author: Svistoonoff, Sergio (sergio.svistoonoff@ird.fr)1 Present address: Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement (IRD),
Laboratoire des Symbioses Tropicales et Mediterraneennes, TA A-82/J,
Campus International de Baillarguet, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5,
France.
Current Opinion in Plant Biology 2014, 20:11–18
This review comes from a themed issue on Biotic interactions 2014
Edited by Makoto Hayashi and Martin Parniske
1369-5266/$ – see front matter, # 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2014.03.001
IntroductionRoot nodule symbiosis (RNS) is a remarkable adaptation
which enables plants to acquire nitrogen directly from the
atmosphere. These symbioses involve the development
of specialised organs, the root nodules, in which nitrogen-
fixing bacteria are accommodated intracellularly and pro-
vided with a suitable environment for the efficient con-
version of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia and its
transfer to the plant. By far the most widely studied RNS
is that involving rhizobia and legumes, and particularly
two model species, Lotus japonicus and Medicago truncatula[1]. However RNS is not limited to legumes: rhizobia can
also form nodules on Parasponia sp. (Cannabaceae) and a
diverse group of plants known as actinorhizal is able to
develop nodules in symbiosis with a very different kind of
www.sciencedirect.com
bacteria, the actinobacterium Frankia. Little is known
about the signalling mechanisms involved in the for-
mation of nodules in actinorhizal plants or Parasponia,
partly because most of these plants are woody shrubs or
trees which are unsuitable for genetic approaches, and
because of the recalcitrance of Frankia to stable genetic
transformation [2]. However, recent technical progress
including the sequencing of several Frankia genomes
[3��], transcriptome studies [4,5��,6��,7,8��], and efficient
plant transformation and gene silencing procedures in
Parasponia and several actinorhizal species [9–12] now
make it possible to better understand these atypical RNS.
Here we focus on the early steps of actinorhizal nodula-
tion and show that very diverse interactions in terms of
plants, bacterial partners and infection mechanisms often
recruited similar signalling molecules and orthologous
sets of genes (Box 1).
Pre-infection signallingThe existence of a molecular dialogue involving molecules
related to legume flavonoids and rhizobial lipochitooligo-
saccharides called Nod factors (NFs) has long been pos-
tulated for actinorhizal RNS. On the plant side, the
secretion of signalling molecules by plant roots was
recently examined in the Casuarina species (Fagales) in
which exposure of the corresponding Frankia to root
exudates was shown to increase its growth rate, to cause
changes in its surface properties, and to favour the infection
and nodulation process [15��]. Among the molecules pre-
sent in Casuarina root exudates are flavonoids, whose role
was studied in Casuarina glauca. Genes involved in the
biosynthesis of flavonoids are upregulated during the early
steps of nodulation in Casuarina [16] and silencing of the
chalcone synthase gene, the first committed step of the
flavonoid biosynthetic pathway has strong negative
impacts on nodulation [17��], indicating that flavonoids
play a critical role in the Casuarina-Frankia interaction.
The role of flavonoids has also been studied in Myrica gale(Fagales), where they were shown to promote Frankiagrowth and nitrogen fixation only in compatible strains
[18,19]. On the bacterial side, Frankia signalling molecules
were partially purified using bioassays based on root hair
deformation of Alnus glutinosa (Fagales) and nodulation
kinetics of Discaria trinervis (Rosales). Surprisingly these
factors had different biochemical properties compared to
NFs and canonical NodA genes which are indispensable for
the production of NFs in rhizobia were not found in the
genome of the corresponding Frankia strains [4,20–22,23��]. Genes distantly related to the other rhizobial
Nod genes are present in Frankia but they are not clustered
Current Opinion in Plant Biology 2014, 20:11–18
12 Biotic interactions 2014
Box 1 Actinorhizal nodulation: origin and diversity
Actinorhizal RNS involve �220 species belonging to eight families of
the orders, Fagales, Cucurbitales and Rosales which, together with
Fabales, comprise the so-called nitrogen-fixing clade (=Fabids),
indicating that all plants able to form RNS share a recent common
ancestor. However, the aptitude to form nodules is not an ancestral
character: the distribution of nodulating clades among Fabids points to
at least nine independent acquisitions of this trait in different lineages
of Fabids [13]. The anatomy and development of the nodule are among
the main features which differentiate legume from non-legume RNS.
Legume nodules are novel organs initiated by cortical cell divisions and
have a peripheral vascular bundle, whereas in actinorhizal plants and
Parasponia, nodules are modified lateral roots with a central
vasculature and are initiated by cell divisions in the pericycle.
Actinorhizal Fagales are characterised by range of relatively advanced
features reminiscent of model legumes: a complex root hair infection
process involving the deformation of root hairs and the formation of
infection threads and the involvement of cortical cell divisions which
give rise to a transient symbiotic organ, the prenodule. In addition the
corresponding Frankia strains belong to the same phylogenetic group
and generally can only nodulate actinorhizal Fagales. On the other
hand, actinorhizal Rosales and probably actinorhizal Cucurbitales are
infected through the more primitive intercellular infection pathway
which does not involve root hair deformation or cortical cell divisions
and are able to interact with Frankia strains belonging to phylogen-
etically distant groups [14] (Figure 1).
within a symbiotic island and are not upregulated under
symbiotic conditions [4,23��], suggesting that they are not
involved in the synthesis of signalling molecules. In C.glauca, we tried a different approach by designing a bioas-
say based on plant genes expressed specifically at early
stages of RNS. In legumes, two genes have been widely
used as markers of NF recognition: MtENOD11 [24] and
Nodule INception (=NIN) [25]. A ProMtENOD11:GUS fusion
was introduced in C. glauca. Although ProMtENOD11 was
active in infected plant cells, it could not be activated at
pre-infection stages or by cell-free extracts from Frankia,
indicating that the transcriptional up-regulation of ProM-tENOD11 preceding microbial infection is not conserved
between M. truncatula and C. glauca [26]. Using a tran-
scriptomic approach, we were able to identify CgNIN, the
putative ortholog of NIN in C. glauca [6��,27]. We observed
that ProCgNIN was active a few hours after inoculation with
Frankia or with a cell-free supernatant obtained from a
Frankia culture (Svistoonoff et al., unpublished). We are
currently using a bioassay based on plants expressing a
ProCgNIN:GFP fusion to identify Frankia signalling mol-
ecules.
Signalling related to infectionLike in rhizobial symbioses, successful mutual recognition
is followed by the penetration of symbiotic bacteria into
plant tissues. Among the signalling molecules which may
play a role at this stage, the phytohormone auxin is one of
the best characterised in actinorhizal symbioses. In C.glauca, the inhibition of auxin influx using naphthoxyacetic
acid (1-NOA) has a negative effect on nodulation [28].
Auxins are produced by Frankia and have been detected in
Current Opinion in Plant Biology 2014, 20:11–18
Frankia-infected cells. Infected cells also express an auxin
influx carrier (CgAUX1) whereas a PIN1-like auxin efflux
carrier is present in surrounding uninfected cells. Compu-
ter simulations indicate that this specific pattern of trans-
porter activity leads to auxin accumulation in infected cells,
where auxins are assumed to induce changes in gene
expression, cell metabolism, or in the cell wall properties
necessary for infection by Frankia [28–30]. One of the
genes targeted by the auxin signalling pathway could be
Cg12, a Casuarina gene encoding a subtilisin-like protease
(=subtilase), which is specifically expressed during the
infection by Frankia but not during the formation of ecto
or endo mycorrhizae [31,32]. When a ProCg12:GFP con-
struct was introduced in M. truncatula, GFP expression was
detected in cells infected by rhizobia [33]. Similarly, the
expression of the M. truncatula gene MtENOD11 in
infected cells is conserved in Casuarina [26] indicating
that the two symbioses share common gene regulation
mechanisms during bacterial infection. Similar results were
obtained with ProMtENOD11:GUS and ProCg12:GFP con-
structs in Discaria (Rosales), an actinorhizal plant infected
through the primitive intercellular pathway [10]. Interest-
ingly these promoters were activated in cells surrounding
the intercellular Frankia hyphae indicating that intercel-
lular and intracellular infection pathways share molecular
components. Subtilases similar to Cg12 and expressed
specifically in infected tissues are present in Alnus [34]
and Discaria (Dt12, Svistoonoff et al., unpublished results)
and can be found in M. truncatula [35] and L. japonicus[36,37] suggesting that these subtilases perform a specific
function related to infection shared by all RNS [32]. Using
comparative transcriptomics, we recently identified genes
upregulated in actinorhizal, rhizobial, and arbuscular
mycorrhizal (AM) symbioses and, remarkably, we found
that the majority of these genes encode subtilases and
other proteases. This suggests that all RNS recruit parts of
the ancient mechanisms used by plants to accommodate
AM fungi [8��].
Signal transduction pathwaysSignalling pathways involved in Legume RNS are begin-
ning to be well understood [1]. Remarkably, these path-
ways also have much in common with the ancient
programme allowing plants to form AM. Transcriptomic
approaches have shown that most genes belonging to this
common signalling pathway (CSP) are expressed during
actinorhizal nodulation in two Fagales (Alnus and Casuar-ina) and Datisca (Cucurbitales) [5��,6��,8��] but detailed
functional characterisation has only been undertaken of
two genes: SymRK and CCaMK. SymRK is needed for
actinorhizal nodulation in Fagales [38] and Cucurbitales
[11]. SymRK genes from actinorhizal plants and closely
related species are able to fully complement the L. japo-nicus symrk mutant; the characteristic presence of three
LRR motifs in these genes — as opposed to two LRR
motifs in non-Rosid SymRK homologs — was assumed to
be one of the evolutionary events which enabled Fabids to
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Actinorhizal signalling and the origins of nodulation Svistoonoff, Hocher and Gherbi 13
Figure 1
Casuarinaceae
Betulaceae
Myricaceae
Datiscaceae
Coriariaceae
Elaeagnaceae
Rhamnaceae
Fabaceae60 MY
FAGALES
CUCURBITALES
ROSALES
FABALES
Cannabaceae
Casuarina (18/18)Allocasuarina (54/59)Ceuthostoma (2/2)Gymnostoma (18/18)Alnus (47/47)
Comptonia (1/1)Myrica (28/60)
Datisca (2/2)
Coriaria (16/16)
Elaeagnus (35/45)Hippophae (2/3)Shepherdia (2/3)Adolphia (1/1)Colletia (4/17)Discaria (5/10)Kentrothamnus (2/2)Retanilla (2/3)Telguenea (1/1)Trevoa (2/6)Ceanothus (31/55)
Parasponia
Frankia clade III"Elaeagnus "
Rhizobia
Rosaceae Dryas (1/3)Purshia (2/4)Cowania (1/25)Cercocarpus (4/20)Chamaebatia (1/2)
39 MY
55 MY
23 MY
>700 genera> 20.000 sp.
88 MY
88 MY
65 MY
39 MY
39 MY
**
Frankia clade II"Uncultured"
ROOT HAIR - C+P
INTERCELLULAR (?)- P
INTERCELLULAR1 - P
ROOT HAIR - C
CRACK ENTRY - C
INTERCELLULAR- C
CRACK ENTRY- C+P
ORDER
Frankia clade I"Alnus "
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
FAMILY GENUS
L
INFECTIONMECHANISM
NODULEANATOMY
Current Opinion in Plant Biology
Phylogeny and diversity of RNS. Phylogenetic relationships between plant families containing species able to form root nodule symbioses and the
corresponding bacterial strains. Solid arrows show the broad correspondence between plant orders and Frankia clades; dashed arrows show
exceptional associations. Circles indicate the putative evolutionary origins of actinorhizal (pink) or rhizobial nodulation (red). Dates correspond to the
oldest fossil evidence for each family. Genera in which the common symbiosis signalling pathway was shown to be involved in nodulation are in bold;
red labels specify the availability of transcriptomic resources. Numbers in parenthesis indicate the total number of species and the number of species
known to be nodulated. Schematic views of infection mechanisms and the anatomy of nodules are shown for each group. Asterisks indicate the first
cell divisions involved in the nodulation process which occur in the cortex (C), the pericycle (P) or both tissues (C + P). When present, infection threads
are shown in blue. Nodule apical meristems are in grey and tissues colonised by Frankia or rhizobia are in pink and red respectively. 1Actinorhizal
Rosales and probably actinorhizal Cucurbitales are infected through the intercellular infection pathway. L. lenticels, typical of actinorhizal
Cucurbitales.Modified after [13,14,46��,53–56].
www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in Plant Biology 2014, 20:11–18
14 Biotic interactions 2014
Figure 2
Legume symbioses Actinorhizal symbioses
Gene name Expression innodule vs root
Mutantphenotype
Species Expression innodule vs root
NFR1 / LYK3 root nod-/inf-(for Lyk3) Ag, Cg*, Dt*, Dg similarNFR5 / NFP similar nod- Cg*, Dt*, Dg similar
SymRK / DMI2 similar nod-/myc- Ag, Cg*, Dg* similar
CASTOR / POLLUX / DMI1 nod nod-/myc- Cg / Dg nod / nd
NUP133 root nod-/myc- Cg / Dg similar / nd
CCaMK / DMI3 nod nod-/myc- Ag, Cg*, Dt* / Dg similar / nd
IPD3 / CYCLOPS nod nod- (S)/myc- Cg / Dg similar / ndCRE1 / HK1 similar nod- Cg / Dg root / nd
NSP1 nod nod-/myc- Ag / Dg similar / nd
NSP2 nod nod-/myc- Dg nd
ERN1 similar inf- Cg* / Dg similar / nd
ERF1 root Ag similarNIN nod nod- (IT, NP)- Cg*, Dg nod
NF -Y Complex nod Ag, Cg / Dg similar / nd
SYMREM1 nod inf- Ag, Cg, Dg nod
CERBERUS/LIN nod inf-/myc- Cg / Dg nod / similar
RIT/NAP1 similar inf- Dg similar
PIR1 similar inf- Dg ndVAPYRIN nod inf-/myc- Cg, Dg nod
RPG nod inf- Ag nod
PUB1 nod Cg, Dg root
HMGR1 root Ag, Cg / Dg nod / nd
LATD/NIP similar nod- Ag, Cg similar
Current Opinion in Plant Biology
Actinorhizal putative orthologues of legume genes encoding proteins involved in Legume RNS. –: defective; nod: nodule enhanced; myc�: defective in
mycorhiza; inf: infection; S: symbiosome; IT: infection thread; NP: nodule primordium; nd: not determined; Ag: Alnus; Cg: Casuarina glauca; Dg:
Datisca glomerata; Dt: Discaria trinervis. *: functional characterisation available or in progress.
Modified from [1,5��,6��,43].
accommodate symbiotic N2-fixing bacteria [11,39]. An
essential role in nodulation was also demonstrated for
CCaMK in Casuarina [40��]. Genes from the CSP were
also recruited for nodulation in Parasponia [12] indicating
that each independent acquisition of nodulation in differ-
ent lineages of Fabids made use of the same symbiotic
signalling pathway. An intriguing question regarding genes
of the CSP is the involvement of the LysM receptors,
which are responsible for the specific recognition of rhi-
zobial NFs in model legumes and in Parasponia [12,25]: a
role of actinorhizal LysM receptors in actinorhizal nodula-
tion would be a sign that Frankia, like rhizobia, uses
chemically related to NFs as signalling molecules.
The involvement of other signalling networks not related
to AM is not well understood. In legumes, many mutants
whose nodulation ability is affected can still form AM [1].
Current Opinion in Plant Biology 2014, 20:11–18
Putative orthologs of the corresponding genes have been
found in actinorhizal Fagales and Cucurbitales (Figure 2).
Among these genes is NIN, a transcription factor crucial
for Legume nodulation [1,27]. CgNIN and DgNIN, the
putative orthologs of NIN are expressed in nodules of
Casuarina and Datisca [5��,6��,8��] and we recently
showed that the CgNIN is essential for nodule formation
in Casuarina and is able to complement a legume nin
mutant for nodule organogenesis (Svistoonoff et al.,unpublished) suggesting that even signalling pathways
which are not derived from the ancient AM symbioses
were recruited by lineages of nodulators which have
independent evolutionary origins [13].
Signalling during nodule organogenesisAs mentioned above, a fundamental difference between
actinorhizal plants and legumes is nodule organogenesis:
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Actinorhizal signalling and the origins of nodulation Svistoonoff, Hocher and Gherbi 15
cortical cell divisions give rise to nodules with a periph-
eral vasculature in legumes whereas actinorhizal nodules
originate from the pericycle and develop a central vas-
cular bundle. Auxin is a central player in lateral root
formation and is therefore expected to be equally import-
ant in actinorhizal root-like nodules. Treatments with
exogenous auxins lead to the formation of thick lateral
roots resembling nodules in actinorhizal Fagales [32,41]
and, as mentioned above, an auxin influx inhibitor per-
turbs the formation of nodules in Casuarina [28]. Because
classical markers of auxin perception are not active in
actinorhizal nodules in Casuarina [30], it is difficult to
provide evidence linking auxins with the early steps of
nodule organogenesis. Furthermore, given that nodule
organogenesis is concomitant with bacterial infection, it
was difficult to distinguish between the molecular mech-
anisms specifically involved in one of these two pro-
cesses. However spontaneous nodulation, which has
recently been achieved in a variety of gain-of-function
mutants or overexpressors in model legumes [42–44]
provides a powerful new tool to study the specific path-
ways involved in nodule formation. Among the genes
involved, CCaMK appears to play a pivotal role in several
interactions: autoactive forms of CCaMK induce the
formation of spontaneous nodules in model legumes
but also in Parasponia [12], actinorhizal Fagales and
Rosales [40��]. The same genetic pathway based on the
activation of CCaMK was therefore used to trigger
nodule organogenesis in all RNS despite the striking
differences in origin and anatomy described above.
Spontaneous nodulation was also described in legumes
in a mutant of the cytokinin receptor CRE1/LHK [44],
and overexpression of the above mentioned NIN tran-
scription factor and one of its targets, NF-YB triggers
the formation of bumps reminiscent of nodule primor-
dia [43]. In model legumes these three proteins are
involved in the same pathway the main outcome of
which is the activation of cortical cell divisions
mediated by cytokinins [43]. We have shown that
NIN is necessary for Casuarina nodulation (Svistoonoff
et al., unpublished results) and that homologs of, NINand NF-YB are present in Casuarina [6��], where this
pathway is possibly involved in the formation of pre-
nodules which originate from cortical cell divisions. The
presence of these genes in Datisca [5��] is more intri-
guing because prenodules are not formed in actinorhizal
Cucurbitales and cortical cells are not involved in
nodule organogenesis. Overexpressors and gain-of-func-
tion versions of these genes could help to clarify the role
of this pathway related to cytokinin in actinorhizal
nodule organogenesis.
Concluding remarksCompared to model legumes, our knowledge of actinor-
hizal plants and Parasponia is sparse and limited to a few
species. Nevertheless, a broad trend can be inferred from
promoter studies, the functional characterisation of sym-
www.sciencedirect.com
biotic genes, and the transcriptomic data described in this
paper: the recruitment of similar signalling molecules and
homologous sets of genes through interactions which
have independent evolutionary origins and differ at many
levels. As we have seen, this ‘deep homology’ between
plants able to form nodules [13] goes beyond the CSP and
possibly reflects evolutionary constraints. In other words,
the evolution of Fabids created an excellent toolkit to
build nitrogen-fixing nodules which was used each time
the ability to nodulate was acquired. This counters a
common misconception in the literature: not only leghae-
moglobins but many other genes usually only associated
with legume nodules are a feature of the whole Fabids
clade. However, if many key determinants are shared,
how can the variety of RNS be explained? One way is to
consider the different RNS as a series of snapshots of the
same evolutionary sequence affecting several characters
(Figure 3). In this series, advanced interactions are typi-
fied by model legumes; primitive interactions by actinor-
hizal Rosales and Cucurbitales, and between the two are
actinorhizal Fagales, Parasponia and various atypical
legume species like Arachis, Sesbania, Mimosa or Aeschy-nomene harbouring mixtures of advanced, intermediate,
and ancestral traits. The ‘snapshot’ hypothesis is sup-
ported by recent studies showing that ancestral traits like
intercellular infection or lateral root-like nodules are
present even in advanced model legumes and become
apparent — often at very low frequencies — in mutants
[45��,46��]. This view offers the exciting opportunity to
go back in time to understand how the ancestors of model
legumes successively improved their ability to nodulate.
The most primitive group of plants and symbionts is
perhaps one of the most interesting, since this is the
closest state to the original asymbiotic condition in which
only the minimal signalling toolkit was used to accom-
modate symbiotic bacteria. Among the groups of plants
listed in Figure 3, actinorhizal Rosales, which are infected
intercellularly without the involvement of transcellular
infection threads, is the group showing ancestral charac-
teristics for all criteria. The intermediate group is also of
particular interest to understand transitional stages: for
instance, prenodules, which are present in Parasponia and
Fagales, are considered to be a simple ancestral version of
legume nodules [47]; and in contrast to model legumes,
Parasponia appears to use the same receptor to recognise
both rhizobial and AM signalling molecules [12]. Also in
this group is Aeschynomene which is able to recognise
rhizobia without the intervention of NFs [48]. Another
interesting observation regarding non-legume RNS is the
prevalence of trees and shrubs (25 out 26 genera,
Figure 1). One possible explanation is the slower
mutation rate generally observed in woody species com-
pared to herbaceous species [49]: as a consequence,
ancient traits that predispose Fabids for nodulation are
more likely to remain functional in trees. Conversely, as
previously suggested [13,50], this hypothesis also
indicates that the basic toolkit needed for nodulation is
Current Opinion in Plant Biology 2014, 20:11–18
16 Biotic interactions 2014
Figure 3
Evolutionary sequence
Ground state Intermediate Advanced
Cri
teri
a
Infection Intercellular Crack entry Root hair
Rosales Ø, Cucurbitales ‡ Fagales ‡Mimosa Ø, Lotus mutants Ø Aeschynomene Ø, Parasponia
‡, Arachis ‡, Sesbania ‡1,Neptunia‡, Lotus mutants ‡
Model legumes‡,Sesbania‡1
Tissuesinvolved
Pericycle Pericycle & cortex (prenodule) Cortex
Rosales2 & Cucurbitales FagalesMedicago mutant Parasponia All legumes
Specificity Poor Intermediate High
Rosales & Cucurbitales, Myrica Alnus CasuarinaParasponia, Vigna Arachis, Aeschynomen e2 Most Legumes,
Aeschynomene3
NF signalling Independent of NFs NF
? ?Aeschynomene3, Lotus mutants Most Legumes,
Parasponia
N2 fixation Free living bacteria Fixation threads Bacteroids
Frankia All Actinorhizal plantsAzorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium,β-rhizobia
Parasponia, Chamaecrista Model legumes,Aeschynomene
Current Opinion in Plant Biology
Evolution of RNS according to different criteria. Different types of RNS were classified as ground state, intermediate or advanced according to five
criteria: the infection mechanism, the tissues where the first cell divisions occur, the strain specificity, the involvement of NFs, and the structures in
which nitrogen fixation occurs. Examples are given for each criterion. Model legumes exhibit advanced characteristics for all criteria. Intermediate or
ancestral traits are naturally present in some non-model legumes, Parasponia and actinorhizal plants. Intermediate or ancestral traits can also be
artificially obtained in mutants of model legumes. Symbols indicate the presence (^) or absence (Ø) of infection threads. 1Sesbania is infected by crack
entry when plants are cultivated in hydroponics. 2Except in Ceanothus griseus where cortical cell divisions occur but do not become infected.3Aeschynomene species which do not rely on NFs for nodulation have narrower strain specificity than NF-dependent species.
Based on [14,46��,48,57].
probably functional in many non-nodulating Fabids trees.
Powerful genomics and metabolomics tools are now
available to test this hypothesis by comparing closely
related species which differ in their ability to nodulate
[51�]. In this respect, we believe the neglected Rosales
deserve increased attention for two main reasons: first,
this is the group in which the most primitive forms of
rhizobial and actinorhizal RNS are represented and sev-
eral genome sequences of non-nodulating Rosales, in-
cluding trees [52], are now available. Second, RNS
evolved three to five times independently within this
order [13] suggesting that non-nodulating Rosales form
one of the easiest groups to target in order to achieve the
old ambition of transferring the ability to form RNS.
Current Opinion in Plant Biology 2014, 20:11–18
AcknowledgementsIRD, the French National Research Agency (ANR-2010 BLAN-1708-01,ANR-12-BSV7-0007-01) and the United States Department of Agriculture(USDA NIFA 2010-65108-20581) provided financial support. We thank A.Champion, L. Laplaze, E. Giraud and L. Wall for helpful discussions andcritical review of the manuscript.
References and recommended readingPapers of particular interest, published within the period of review,have been highlighted as:
� of special interest
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Actinorhizal signalling and the origins of nodulation Svistoonoff, Hocher and Gherbi 17
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Demina IV, Persson T, Santos P, Plaszczyca M, Pawlowski K:Comparison of the nodule vs. root transcriptome of theactinorhizal plant Datisca glomerata: actinorhizal nodulescontain a specific class of defensins. PLOS ONE 2013,8:e72442.
This paper provides a detailed list of genes expressed during actinorhizalnodulation in Datisca (Cucurbitales). Together with Ref. [5��], it revealsthat putative ortologues of most genes involved in rhizobial RNS arepresent in several actinorhizal species, suggesting thus that all RNS arelargely based on the same molecular toolkit.
6.��
Hocher V, Alloisio N, Auguy F, Fournier P, Doumas P, Pujic P,Gherbi H, Queiroux C, Da Silva C, Wincker P et al.:Transcriptomics of actinorhizal symbioses reveals homologsof the whole common symbiotic signaling cascade. PlantPhysiol 2011, 156:700-711 See annotation to Ref. [5��].
7. Mastronunzio JE, Tisa LS, Normand P, Benson DR: Comparativesecretome analysis suggests low plant cell wall degradingcapacity in Frankia symbionts. BMC Genomics 2008, 9:47.
8.��
Tromas A, Parizot B, Diagne N, Champion A, Hocher V, Cissoko M,Crabos A, Prodjinoto H, Lahouze B, Bogusz D et al.: Heart ofendosymbioses: transcriptomics reveals a conserved geneticprogram among arbuscular mycorrhizal, actinorhizal andlegume-rhizobial symbioses. PLOS ONE 2012, 7:e44742.
A comparative analysis of gene expression between Casuarina, Medi-cago and rice allowed the identification of a common set of genesinduced in AM, rhizobial and actinorhizal endosymbioses and providean illustration of how these three different symbioses recruit similar sets ofgenes. Genes encoding proteases compose the biggest class.
9. Gherbi H, Nambiar-Veetil M, Zhong C, Felix J, Autran D, Girardin R,Vaissayre V, Auguy F, Bogusz D, Franche C: Post-transcriptionalgene silencing in the root system of the actinorhizal treeAllocasuarina verticillata. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 2008,21:518-524.
10. Imanishi L, Vayssieres A, Bogusz D, Franche C, Wall LG,Svistoonoff S: Transformed hairy roots of Discaria trinervis: avaluable tool for studying actinorhizal symbiosis in the contextof intercellular infection. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 2011,24:1317-1324.
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15.��
Beauchemin NJ, Furnholm T, Lavenus J, Svistoonoff S, Doumas P,Bogusz D, Laplaze L, Tisa LS: Casuarina root exudates alter thephysiology, surface properties, and plant infectivity of Frankiasp. strain CcI3. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012, 78:575-580.
This paper demonstrates that exposure of Frankia to root exudates fromCasuarina has several physiological effects and favours the nodulationprocess.
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16. Auguy F, Abdel-Lateif K, Doumas P, Badin P, Guerin V, Bogusz D,Hocher V: Activation of the isoflavonoid pathway inactinorhizal symbioses. Funct Plant Biol 2011, 38:690-696.
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Abdel-Lateif K, Vaissayre V, Gherbi H, Verries C, Meudec E,Perrine-Walker F, Cheynier V, Svistoonoff S, Franche C, Bogusz Det al.: Silencing of the chalcone synthase gene in Casuarinahighlights the important role of flavonoids during nodulation.New Phytol 2013, 199:1012-1021.
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Normand P, Lapierre P, Tisa LS, Gogarten JP, Alloisio N,Bagnarol E, Bassi CA, Berry AM, Bickhart DM, Choisne N:Genome characteristics of facultatively symbiotic Frankia sp.strains reflect host range and host plant biogeography.Genome Res 2007, 17:7-15 See annotation to Ref. [3��].
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Svistoonoff S, Benabdoun FM, Nambiar-Veetil M, Imanishi L,Vaissayre V, Cesari S, Diagne N, Hocher V, de Billy F, Bonneau Jet al.: The independent acquisition of plant root nitrogen-fixingsymbiosis in fabids recruited the same genetic pathway fornodule organogenesis. PLOS ONE 2013, 8:e64515.
This paper describes the characterisation of the Casuarina CCaMK gene, itsability to complement the corresponding legume mutant, and its involve-ment in the actinorhizal nodulation. The paper also shows that the activationof CCaMK is sufficient to trigger spontaneous nodule formation not only inC. glauca but also in the Discaria trinervis (Rosales) indicating that eachindependent acquisition of nodulation used the same pathway based on theactivation of CCaMK to trigger nodule organogenesis.
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Guan D, Stacey N, Liu C, Wen J, Mysore KS, Torres-Jerez I,Vernie T, Tadege M, Zhou C, Wang Z et al.: Rhizobial infection isassociated with the development of peripheral vasculature innodules of Medicago truncatula. Plant Physiol 2013, 162:107-115.
This paper shows that model legumes have kept ancient traits whichbecome visible when mutations disrupt particular signalling pathways:here mutations in lin-4 lead to the formation of nodules with a centralvascular bundle similar to Parasponia or actinorhizal nodules.
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Madsen LH, Tirichine L, Jurkiewicz A, Sullivan JT, Heckmann AB,Bek AS, Ronson CW, James EK, Stougaard J: The molecularnetwork governing nodule organogenesis and infection in themodel legume Lotus japonicus. Nat Commun 2010, 1:10 Seeannotation to Ref. [45��].
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This review is mainly focused on symbiotic signalling in Parasponia, theonly non-legume able to form nitrogen fixing root nodules with rhizobiawhich shares many similarities with actinorhizal plants.
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