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C HAPTER 18
Introduction to Systems
Development and Systems
Analysis
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INTRODUCTION
Questions to be addressed in this chapterinclude:
What are the phases in the systems developmentlife cycle?
Who are the individuals involved in systemsdevelopment?
What techniques are used to plan the developmentof a system?
How do you determine whether a particular systemis feasible?
How do people respond to systems changes, andhow can dysfunctional behavior be minimized?
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INTRODUCTION
As the environment, technology, and
competition change, an information
system must continually undergo changes.
These changes range from minor
adjustments to major overhauls.
Occasionally, the old system is scrapped
and replaced.
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INTRODUCTION
Companies change their systems for a variety ofreasons: To respond to changes in user needs or business needs.
To take advantage of or respond to technology changes.
To accommodate improvements in their business process.
To gain a competitive advantage and/or lower costs. To increase productivity.
To accommodate growth.
To accommodate downsizing or distribute decision making
To integrate incompatible systems.
To replace a system that is aged and unstable.
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INTRODUCTION
Developing quality, error-free software is difficult,expensive, and time-consuming.
Projects tend to deliver less than expected and consumemore time and money.
A KPMG survey found that 35% of all major informationsystems projects were classified as runawayshopelessly incomplete and over budget. Major cause of runaways: Skimping on systems development
processes.
Omitting basic systems development steps becomestempting but may lead to disaster as developers createwell-structured systems that fail to meet user needs orsolve business problems.
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INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses five topics:
Systems development life cycle
Planning activities during the systems
development life cycle Feasibility analysis
Behavioral aspects of change
Systems analysis
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
Whether systems changes are major orminor, most companies go through asystems development life cycle.
In this section, we discuss the steps in thecycle and the people involved.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
The five stages in the systemsdevelopment life cycle are:
Systems analysis
Conceptual design Physical design
Implementation and conversion
Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
The five stages in the systemsdevelopment life cycle are:
Systems analysis
Conceptual design Physical design
Implementation and conversion
Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
As organizations grow and change, they mayneed more or better information.
Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:
Initial investigation Involves gathering the information needed
to buy or develop a new system and
determining whether it is a priority.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
As organizations grow and change, they mayneed more or better information.
Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:
Initial investigation Systems survey
If the system is a priority, survey the
existing system to define the nature and
scope of the project and identify the
strengths and weaknesses of the system.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
As organizations grow and change, they mayneed more or better information.
Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:
Initial investigation Systems survey
Feasibility study
Involves an in-depth study of the proposed
system to determine whether its feasible.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
As organizations grow and change, they mayneed more or better information.
Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:
Initial investigation Systems survey
Feasibility study
Determination of information needs and systemrequirements
Involves finding out and documenting what
users and management need.
This is the most important aspect of
systems analysis.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
As organizations grow and change, they mayneed more or better information.
Systems analysis is the first step. It includes:
Initial investigation Systems survey
Feasibility study
Determination of information needs and systemrequirements
Delivery of systems requirements
Involves preparation of a report
summarizing the systems analysis work.
This report is submitted to the information
systems steering committee.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
The five stages in the systemsdevelopment life cycle are:
Systems analysis
Conceptual design Physical design
Implementation and conversion
Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
In the conceptual design phase, the companydecides how to meet user needs.
Tasks in this phase include:
Identify and evaluate design alternatives Possibilities include:
Buying software
Developing in-house
Outsourcing
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
In the conceptual design phase, the companydecides how to meet user needs.
Tasks in this phase include:
Identify and evaluate design alternatives Develop design specifications
Involves writing up details of what the system is to
accomplish and how it is to be controlled and
developed.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
In the conceptual design phase, the companydecides how to meet user needs.
Tasks in this phase include:
Identify and evaluate design alternatives Develop design specifications
Deliver conceptual design requirements
These requirements will be forwarded to the
information systems steering committee.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
The five stages in the systemsdevelopment life cycle are:
Systems analysis
Conceptual design Physical design
Implementation and conversion
Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
In the physical design phase, the broad, user-oriented requirements of the conceptual designare translated into detailed specifications thatcan be used by programmers to code theprograms.
Tasks include:
Design outputs, database, and inputs
Develop programs
Develop procedures
Design controls
Deliver developed system Goes to information systems steering committee
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
The five stages in the systemsdevelopment life cycle are:
Systems analysis
Conceptual design Physical design
Implementation and conversion
Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
This is the capstone phase during which everythingcomes together.
Tasks include: Develop an implementation and conversion plan.
Needed because of the complexity and importance of this phase. Install any new hardware and software.
Train personnel.
New employees may need to be hired and trained or existingemployees relocated.
Test the system and make any needed modifications. Complete the documentation.
Convert from the old to the new system.
Deliver operational system.
Send the final report to the IS steering committee.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
The five stages in the systemsdevelopment life cycle are:
Systems analysis
Conceptual design Physical design
Implementation and conversion
Operation and maintenance
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
Once the system is up and running, operationsand monitoring continue.
Tasks include:
Fine-tune and do post-implementation review. Operate the system.
Periodically, review and modify the system.
Do ongoing maintenance.
Deliver improved system.
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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
Eventually, a major modification or systemreplacement is necessary, and the systemsdevelopment life cycle (SDLC) will start over.
In addition to the preceding five phases, three
activities are performed throughout the life cycle: Planning.
Managing behavioral reactions to change.
Assessing ongoing feasibility.
These three activities will be discussed in thischapter.
Additionally, the first phase in the SDLC, systemsanalysis, will be discussed in more detail.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing andsuccessfully implementing an AIS, including:
Top management
Accountants The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing andsuccessfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management
Accountants The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
Top managements role in systems developmentis to: Provide support and encouragement a clear signal
that user involvement is important.
Help align the systems with corporate strategies.
Establish system goals and objectives.
Review IS department performance and leadership.
Establish policies for project selection and
organizational structure. Participate in important systems decisions.
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THE PLAYERS
User management needs to: Determine information requirements for departmental
projects.
Assist systems analysts with project cost-benefit
estimates. Assign key staff members to development projects.
Allocate funds.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing andsuccessfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management
Accountants The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
Accountants also play an important role insystems development: As AIS users, they must determine their information needs
and systems requirements and communicate them to
system developers. As members of project development teams or steering
committees, they help management in the developmentprocess.
They are also active in:
Designing system controls and monitoring and testing thesecontrols.
Ensuring the system is easy to audit.
Controls and auditability need to be built in early tominimize costs and inefficiencies later.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing andsuccessfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management
Accountants The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
The information systems steering committee isan executive-level committee whose duty is toplan and oversee the IS function. Consists of high level management, such as:
Controller
IS Manager
User department managers
Sets policies to govern the AIS and assure top-
management participation, guidance, and control. Attempts to encourage goal congruence and reduce
goal conflict.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing andsuccessfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management
Accountants The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
The project development team includes systemsspecialists, managers, accountants, auditors, and userswhose responsibility is to guide development.
Their job:
Plan each project. Monitor to ensure timely and cost-effective completion.
Ensure the human element is considered.
Communicate project status to top management and steeringcommittee.
Communicate and meet with users to: Consider ideas
Discuss progress
Eliminate surprises
The team approach produces more effective results and better
user acceptance.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing andsuccessfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management
Accountants The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
Systems analysts study existing systems,design new ones, and preparespecifications that are used by
programmers. They interact with technical personnel and
users to bridge the gap.
They are responsible for ensuring the system
meets user needs.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing andsuccessfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management
Accountants The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
Computer programmers write thecomputer programs, using the specsdeveloped by the systems analysts.
They also modify and maintaining existingprograms.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing andsuccessfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management
Accountants The information systems steering committee
The project development team
Systems analysts
Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
External players include:
Customers
Vendors
Auditors Governmental entities
Their needs must also be met in systems
development.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Several activities must be performed at varioustimes throughout the SDLC.
One of these activities is planning.
The organization should have plans for: The long range. Each systems development project.
Each phase of each systems development project.
Well discuss these plans and a number oftechniques to develop them.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Weve all experienced the disasters that occur when wefail to plan.
When you got it home, you realized it wasnt compatiblewith your existing printer and scanner.
Furthermore, it wasnt equipped for broadband Internetaccess and you had been hoping to switch tobroadband.
By the time you spend the money and buy the parts toequip the computer to do what you want it to do, you find
that you could have bought a leading-edge computer forless money.
Suppose you bought a personal computer on impulsewithout thinking about what you wanted to do with it.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Systems development planning is an importantstep for the following key reasons: Consistencywith the organizations strategic plan.
Efficiencyachieved through coordination of the
subsystems.
Cutting edgetechnology and techniques.
Lower costsdue to lack of duplication, wasted effort,time overruns, and cost overruns.
Adaptabilityfor future changes.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
When a system is poorly planned, a companymust often return to a prior phase and correcterrors and design flaws.
These returns are costly and result in delays,frustration, and low morale.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Two types of systems development plansare needed:
- Individual project plans developed by the
project teams.- A master plan developed by the IS steering
committee.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Two types of systems development plansare needed:
- Individual project plans developed by the
project teams.- A master plan developed by the IS steering
committee.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Individual project plans contain: A cost-benefit analysis.
Developmental and operational requirements,including:
Human resources Hardware
Software
Financial resources
A schedule of activities to develop and operate thenew application.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Two types of systems development plansare needed:
- Individual project plans developed by the
project teams.- A master plan developed by the IS steering
committee.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Projects with highest priority are first to bedeveloped. These decisions are made by top management.
Planning horizon: About a 3-year horizon.
With updates at least 23 times/yeareven morefrequently in some companies.
The CIO should determine: How soon technologies will be in wide use.
Whether the company should adopt late or early.
What business opportunities might arise from newtechnologies.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Planning techniques
Two techniques for scheduling and
monitoring systems development
activities are:
Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT)
Gantt Charts
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Planning techniques
Two techniques for scheduling and
monitor systems development activities
are:
Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT)
Gantt Charts
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
A PERT diagram requires that all activities
in a project be identified along with the
activities that precede and follow them.
These activities are used to draw a PERTdiagram, which consists of a network of:
Arrowsrepresenting activities that require
time and resources. Nodesrepresenting completion and initiation
of activities.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
The critical path in a PERT diagram is the
path requiring the greatest amount of time.
If an activity on the critical path is delayed,
the whole project is delayed.
Resources may be shifted to the critical
path to reduce the delay.
SAMPLE PERT CHART
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Design
Birdhouse
(2)
(Bill)
Buy Wood
& Nails
(1)(Bill)
Buy
Paint
(1)
(Sara)
Build
Base
(2)(Bill)
Build
Roof
(1)
(Bill)
Nail
Together
(2)
(Bill)
Paint &
Decorate
(3)
(Sara)
Sell
(2)
(Sara)
SAMPLE PERT CHART For building and selling a birdhouse.
Each block contains a task and a time estimate (may
include best time, worst time, and average time). May indicate who will be responsible for the task.
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PLANNING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Planning techniques
Two techniques for scheduling and
monitor systems development activities
are:
Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT)
Gantt Charts
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SAMPLE GANTT CHART
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SAMPLE GANTT CHART
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Design birdhouse
Buy wood & nails
Buy paint
Build roofBuild base
Nail together
Paint & decorate
Sell
Period
Complete
Testing
In Development
Milestone
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
The feasibility study and its updates are
used by the steering committee as the
project proceeds to decide whether to:
Terminate the project
Proceed
Proceed if specific problems are resolved
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Five aspects need to be considered during afeasibility study: Technical feasibility
Is the technology there to do it?
Operational feasibility Do we have people who can do it, and will it get used?
Legal feasibility Does it comply with legal, regulatory, and contractual
obligations?
Scheduling feasibility Can it be done in time?
Economic feasibility Will the benefits exceed the costs?
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Calculating economic feasibility costs and
benefits
Economic feasibility is probably the most important
and frequently analyzed aspect.
This examination requires a careful investigation of
costs and benefits.
It typically uses a capital budgeting model that
considers:
Cost savings and other benefits
Initial outlay costs
Operating costs
Other costs
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Benefits might include:
Cost savings.
Improved customer service, productivity,
decision making, or data processing.
Better management control.
Increased job satisfaction and employee
morale. A rigorous cost-benefit analysis is a good strategy forensuring the benefit of new information technology
exceeds the cost.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Costs might include: Equipment costs
Initial outlay plus ongoing operating costs.
Software costs
Costs of acquiring, maintaining, supporting, and operating.
Human resource costs
Salaries, as well as costs of hiring, training, and relocating staff.
Site preparation costs.
Installation and conversion costs.
Supplies.
Overhead.
Financial charges.
The primary operating cost is maintaining the system. Makes up 6575% of the organizations system efforts.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Capital budgeting
Most organizations use a capital budgeting
return on investment technique to evaluate
the economic merits of different systemalternatives.
There are three commonly used techniques:
Payback period
Calculates the number of years before the new savings
from the project equal the initial cost of the investment.
Select projects with shorter payback periods.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Capital Budgeting
Most organizations use a capital budgeting
return on investment technique to evaluate
the economic merits of different systemalternatives.
There are three commonly used techniques:
Payback period
Net present value (NPV)
Calculates and sums the discounted future cash flows
of the costs and benefits.
Select projects with higher positive NPV.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Capital Budgeting
Most organizations use a capital budgeting
return on investment technique to evaluate
the economic merits of different systemalternatives.
There are three commonly used techniques:
Payback period
Net present value (NPV)
Internal rate of return (IRR)
Calculates the effective interest rate that would result in
a net present value of zero for the project.
Select projects with higher IRRs.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
The best system will fail without the
support of the people it serves.
So the behavioral aspects of change are
crucial.
You need to be aware of and sensitive to
the types of behavioral problems that can
result from change.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
Why behavioral problems occur
Employees will tend to view change as good if
they believe it will affect them positively and
vice versa. The Department of Defense with 3.3 million employees
has faced tremendous resistance to change in the
course of over 20 years of system integration attempts.
A more transparent system would likely exposepersonal agendas and a project protection mindset.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
Personal characteristics and background Employees are more likely to accept change if they are:
Young;
Highly educated; or
Comfortable with technology.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
Personal characteristics and background Manner in which change is introduced
The rationale used to sell the system may need to vary
with the job responsibilities of the employees involved.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,
it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
Personal characteristics and background Manner in which change is introduced
Experience with prior changes Fool me once, shame on me . . .
Lets see if I even give you asecond chance.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
Personal characteristics and background Manner in which change is introduced
Experience with prior changes
Top management support
Communication
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
To minimize adverse behavioral reactions,it helps to understand why resistance
occurs:
Personal characteristics and background Manner in which change is introduced
Experience with prior changes
Top management support
Communication Biases and natural resistance to change
Disruptive nature of the change process
Disturbances often create
negative feelings.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
How people resist AIS changes
Resistance to change often takes one of
three forms:
Aggression
Behavior intended to destroy, cripple, or weaken the
systems effectiveness.
Examples: Increased error rates, disruptions, or
deliberate sabotage.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
How people resist AIS changes
Resistance to change often takes one of
three forms:
Aggression
Projection
Blaming the new system for any and every unpleasant
occurrence, i.e., the system becomes a scapegoat. To preserve the integrity of the system, these criticisms
must be controlled or answered.
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BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CHANGE
How people resist AIS changes
Resistance to change often takes one of
three forms:
Aggression
Projection
Avoidance
If I dont use this thing, maybe it will go away!
At Davis Controls, the CEO eventually had to
terminate employees who avoided using a new
information system.
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Reactions to change can be improved byobserving the following guidelines:
Meet users needs with respect to the form,
content, and volume of system output. Keep communication lines open. Managers
and users should be fully informed about:
What changes are being made
Why
How it will benefit them
Who to contact with questions
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Maintain a safe and open atmosphere. If employees become hostile, its an uphill battle
you probably wont win.
Obtain management support.Allay fears.
To the extent possible, reassure employees that
no major job losses or responsibility shifts will
occur. If employees are terminated, severance pay and
outplacement services should be provided.
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Solicit user participation. It is ego enhancing, challenging, and intrinsically
satisfying.
Users who participate will be more committed to
using the system.
Provide honest feedback.
Explain which suggestions are and are not being
used and why. Make sure users understand the system.
Dont underestimate training needs.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Humanize the system. Employees shouldnt feel the computer is
controlling them or has usurped their positions.
Describe new challenges and opportunities.
The system can provide greater job satisfactionand increased opportunities.
Reexamine performance evaluation. Are performance standards and criteria realistic in
light of the change? Test the systems integrity.
It important to minimize bad impressions
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Avoid emotionalism. Emotional issues should be allowed to cool, handled in
a non-confrontational manner, or sidestepped.
Present the system in the proper context.
Address the concerns of the people to whom youre
speaking, not the concerns of management or
developers.
Control the users expectations.
Dont oversell, and be realistic.
Keep the system simple.
Avoid complex systems that cause radical changes.
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Ignoring the preceding steps can leave tobehavior issues that are difficult or
impossible to reverse.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
When a new or improved system isneeded, a written request for systems
development is prepared. That request
describes: The current systems problems.
The reasons for the proposed changes.
The goals and objectives of a proposedsystem.
The anticipated benefits and costs.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conductthe systems analysis in five steps:
Initial investigation
Systems survey
Feasibility study
Information needs and systems requirements
Systems analysis report
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conductthe systems analysis in five steps
Initial investigation
Systems survey
Feasibility study
Information needs and systems requirements
Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The initial investigation is conducted to: Gain a clear picture of the problem or need.
Determine the viability of the project and
expected costs and payoffs.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The initial investigation is conducted to: Gain a clear picture of the problem or need.
Determine the viability of the project and
expected costs and payoffs. Evaluate the scope and nature of the new
AIS.
Recommend whether to proceed.
Either: Initiate the project as proposed.
Modify it.
Abandon it.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
If the project is approved:A proposal to conduct systems analysis is
prepared.
The project is assigned a priority and addedto the master plan.
The development team begins a survey of the
existing AIS.
The proposal will be modified as more
information becomes available.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conductthe systems analysis in five steps
Initial investigation
Systems survey Feasibility study
Information needs and systems requirements
Systems analysis report
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
A systems survey involves an extensive study of thecurrent AIS which could take weeks or months.Objectives are: Gain a thorough understanding of:
Company operations, policies, and procedures.
Data and information flow.
AIS strengths and weaknesses.
Available hardware, software, and personnel.
Make preliminary assessments of current and future
processing needs, and determine extent and nature ofneeded changes.
Develop working relationships with users and build support.
Collect data that identify user needs, conduct a feasibilityanalysis, and make recommendations to management.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Data can be gathered from: Employees.
Documentation such as organization charts
and procedure manuals. External sources such as:
Consultants
Customers
Suppliers
Industry associations
Government agencies
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Four common methods of gathering dataare:
Interviews
Questionnaires Observation
System documentation
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Four common methods of gathering dataare:
Interviews
Questionnaires Observation
System documentation
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Advantages of interviews: Can answer why questions.
Can allow for follow-up and clarification.
Provides opportunity to build positive relationships
with interviewees and support for new system.
Disadvantages of interviews:
Time-consuming.
Expensive. Personal biases or self-interest may produce
inaccurate information.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
When you do interviews: Make an appointment.
Explain the purpose ahead of time.
Indicate the amount of time needed.
Be on time. Be familiar with the interviewees responsibilities.
Make notes on points to cover.
Put the interviewee at ease and let him/her do thetalking.
Pay attention to nonverbal cues. Take notes and augment them with impressions after
the interview.
Request permission to tape critical interviews.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Four common methods of gathering dataare:
Interviews
Questionnaires Observation
System documentation
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Questionnaires can be used when: The amount of information to be gathered is
small and well defined.
The information is to be obtained from manypeople or from those who are remotely
located.
The information is intended to verify data from
other sources.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Advantages of questionnaires: Can be anonymous.
Not time-consuming to complete.
Inexpensive.
Allows the subject time to think about responses.
Disadvantages of questionnaires: Does not allow in-depth questions or answers.
Does not allow follow-up or clarification.
Does not build relationships.
Difficult to develop.
May be ignored or completed superficially.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Four common methods of gathering dataare:
Interviews
Questionnaires Observation
System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Advantages of observations: Can verify how the system actually works
rather than how it should work.
Results in greater understanding of systems.
Disadvantages of observations:
Time-consuming.
Expensive.
Difficult to interpret.
People may alter behavior while beingobserved.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
When you do observations: Identify what is to be observed and estimate
the time required.
Obtain permission. Explain what will be done and why.
Dont make value judgments.
Take notes and document impressions ASAP.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Four common methods of gathering dataare:
Interviews
Questionnaires Observation
System documentation
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Advantages of systems documentation: Describes how the system shou ldwork.
Written form facilitates review and analysis.
Disadvantages of systems documentation:
Time consuming.
May be elusive.
When you examine systems documentation: Keep in mind that the system doesnt always work as
it should per the documentation.
If documentation is unavailable, it may be worthwhileto develop it.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Another form of documentation is asystem model:
Physical modelsillustrate how a systemfunctions by describing: Flow of documents.
Computer processes performed and the peopledoing them.
Equipment used.
Any other physical elements.
Logical modelsillustrate what is being doneregardless of how the flow is accomplished.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
When documentation is complete, analyzethe existing system:
Evaluate the AISs strengths and weaknesses
to develop ideas for designing and structuringthe new AIS.
Try to retain strengths.
Correct weaknesses.
Sometimes, you need revolutionary, rather
than evolutionary change.
Called reengineering.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
At the end of this phase, prepare systemssurvey report:
Outlines and documents the data gathered.
Provides recommendations that result fromthe systems survey.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conductthe systems analysis in five steps:
Initial investigation
Systems survey Feasibility study
Information needs and systems requirements
Systems analysis report
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
After the systems survey, a more thoroughfeasibility analysis is conducted.
This analysis is updated regularly as the
project proceeds and costs and benefitsbecome clearer.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conductthe systems analysis in five steps:
Initial investigation
Systems survey Feasibility study
Information needs and systems
requirements Systems analysis report
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the companyidentifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
Describes what is to be doneand by whom.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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S S S S S
Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the companyidentifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
- Data elements
Describes name, size, format,
source, and significance ofnecessary data elements.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the companyidentifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
- Data elements- Data structure A preliminary structure showing
how the data elements will be
organized into logical records.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the companyidentifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
- Data elements- Data structure
- Outputs Layouts of system outputs and a
description of their purpose,
frequency, and distribution.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the companyidentifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
- Data elements- Data structure
- Outputs
- Inputs A copy of system inputs and a
description of their contents,
source, and who is responsiblefor them.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the companyidentifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
- Data elements- Data structure
- Outputs
- Inputs
- Constraints
A description of deadlines,
schedules, security requirements,
staffing limitations, and legalrequirements.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the companyidentifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
- Data elements- Data structure
- Outputs
- Inputs
- Constraints
- Controls Controls that are needed toensure accuracy and reliability.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the companyidentifies the information needs of AIS users and
documents systems processes, including:
- Processes
- Data elements- Data structure
- Outputs
- Inputs
- Documentation constraints
- Controls
- Reorganizations Changes in staffing, job
functions, etc., that would be
necessary.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Issues: There is much to be specified, even for a
simple AIS.
It may be difficult to get employees toaccurately articulate their needs.
Errors are best caught early, as the cost to
correct them increases significantly the farther
you are into the project.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives and constraints Many entities take a systems approachto
determining information needs and systems
requirements. Problems and alternatives are viewed from
the standpoint of the entire organizationas
opposed to a single department.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives must be identified, soanalysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
Able to help users make
decisions.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives must be identified, soanalysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
Benefits exceed costs.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives must be identified, soanalysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
- Reliability
Data is processed accurately
and reliably.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives must be identified, soanalysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
- Reliability
- Availability You can access it when you
need it.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives must be identified, soanalysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
- Reliability
- Availability- Timeliness
More critical information is
provided first.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives must be identified, soanalysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
- Reliability
- Availability- Timeliness
- Customer service
Efficient and courteous.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives must be identified, soanalysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
- Reliability
- Availability- Timeliness
- Customer service
- Capacity
Can handle peak periods.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives must be identified, soanalysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
- Reliability
- Availability- Timeliness
- Customer service
- Capacity
- Ease of use
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives must be identified, soanalysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
- Reliability
- Availability- Timeliness
- Customer service
- Capacity
- Ease of use
- Flexibility
Can accommodate changes.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Systems objectives must be identified, soanalysts and users can focus on those elements
most vital to success of the AIS. These may
include:
- Usefulness
- Economy
- Reliability
- Availability- Timeliness
- Customer service
- Capacity
- Ease of use
- Flexibility
- Tractability
- Auditability
- Security Available only toauthorized users.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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There are often trade-offs between objectives. Organizational constraints make it impossible to
develop all parts of an AIS simultaneously.
You divide it into modules that are analyzed,
developed, and installed independently.
When changes are made, only the affected modules
need to be changed.
The modules should be properly integrated into a
workable system.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Success often depends on the projectteams ability to cope with organizational
constraints, including:
Requirements of governmental agencies. Managerial policies and guidelines.
Lack of sufficient, qualified staff.
Capabilities and attitudes of users.Available technology.
Limited financial resources.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Strategies for determiningrequirements:
One or more of the following four strategies
are used to determine AIS requirements: Ask users what they need
This is the simplest and fastest strategy.
But many people dont realize or understand their true
needs.
Its sometimes better to ask them what decisions they
make and what processes they are involved in.
Users also need to think beyond their current
information needs.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Strategies for determiningrequirements:
One or more of the following four strategies
are used to determine AIS requirements: Ask users what they need
Analyze existing systems
Internal and external systems should be analyzed to
avoid reinventing the wheel.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Strategies for DeterminingRequirements:
One or more of the following four strategies
are used to determine AIS requirements: Ask users what they need
Analyze existing systems
Examine existing system use
Certain modules:
May not be used as intended
May be augmented by manual tasks
May be avoided altogether Helps determine whether the system really needs to be
simply modified rather than replaced.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Strategies for DeterminingRequirements:
One or more of the following four strategies
are used to determine AIS requirements: Ask users what they need
Analyze existing systems
Examine existing system use
Create a prototype
Entails roughing out a system for users to critique.
When they see something on a screen, its easier to
identify what they like and dont like.
Goes through iterations of improving and reviewing
with users until users agree on their needs.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Documentation and approval of userrequirements:
Detailed requirements for the new AIS shouldbe created and documented.
How to produce the required features isdetermined during the design phases of the SDLC.
The requirements list should be supported bysample input and output forms and charts that
make it easier to conceptualize. A nontechnical summary is often prepared for
management.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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Once user requirements have beendetermined and documented, the project
team:
Meets with users. Explains the requirements.
Obtains their agreement and approval.
When an agreement is reached, usermanagement should sign off on the
requirements.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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The project development team will conductthe systems analysis in five steps:
Initial investigation
Systems survey Feasibility study
Information needs and systems requirements
Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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A go-no-go decision is usually made threetimes during systems analysis:
During the initial investigation to determine
whether to go ahead with a systems survey.At the end of the feasibility study to determine
whether to proceed with the information
requirements step.
At the completion of the analysis phase todecide whether to proceed to the next phase
(conceptual design).
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SUMMARY
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Youve learned about the five phases in thesystems development life cycle, with a particularemphasis on systems analysis.
Youve learned who the players are in thesystems development process.
Youve learned about various techniques thatare used to plan the development of a system.
Youve reviewed some techniques fordetermining system feasibility.
Youve learned about behavioral responses tosystems changes and how dysfunctional
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