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1.2 The Industrial Revolution and Dickens’ works
The Industrial Revolution greatly impacted Charles Dickens’ novels as he attacked its nature
and effects on humanity. Pat Hudson defined this technological phenomenon as “a shift from
agrarian and rural ased occupations to predominantly uran!ased industrial and service
employments. . ." #hich resulted in “radical shifts in social relations" $%&. Charles Dickens
and other authors of his time' #rote in a period of gro#ing competition and industrial unrest#hich resulted from the “divorce of laour from the land and the rise of proletarianised #age
laour" $()&.
It is elieved that the Industrial Revolution #as caused y an outgro#th of social and
institutional changes rought y the end of feudalism in *ritain after the +nglish Civil ,ar in
the seventeenth century $-shton /&. The *ritish -gricultural Revolution made food
production more efficient and less laour intensive' forcing those #ho lost their 0os into
cottage industries such as #eavers. Henceforth these industries spanned into ne#ly developed
factories. The change from agricultural to technological production enaled the economy to
immensely support an increasing non!agricultural #orkforce $Hart#ell' 1td. y Hudson /&.
2overnment grants of limited monopolies to inventors and increase in the rate of capital
formation under a developing patent #ere considered an influential factor $Hart#ell 1td. yHudson /&. The effects of patents of the development of industriali3ation are illustrated in the
history of the steam engine. In return' for pulicly revealing the operations of an invention'
the patent system re#arded inventors y allo#ing inventors such as 4ames ,att to
monopoli3e the production of the first steam engines. Therefore' the technological revolution
#as a result of an autonomous increase in kno#ledge and its application #hich led to the
transformation of the machine and a more productive organisation of industry $/&.
-dditionally for 2reat *ritain' the Industrial Revolution #as spanned y the increase in #orld
trade and the influ5 of natural or financial resources that *ritain received from its numerous
overseas colonies and the profits from the *ritish slave trade et#een -frica and the
Cariean #hich helped fuel industrial investment $Hart#ell 1td. y Hudson /&. The greater
lierali3ation of trade from a large merchant ase could have allo#ed *ritain to produce and
utili3e emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries
#ith stronger monarchies such as China and Russia. This #as evidenced y the fact that
*ritain emerged from the 6apoleonic #ars as the only +uropean nation not ravaged y
financial plunder and economic collapse.
The stale political situation in *ritain and the society’s greater receptiveness to change is
also another factor that favoured the Industrial Revolution $7melser 8)&. Due to the enclosure
movement in the eighteenth century' #hich #as a process entailing the privati3ation of
property' the peasantry #as destroyed as significant source of resistance to industriali3ation
and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in the
advancement of the gro#th of capitalism. 9urthermore' the increasing use of industrial orfi5ed capital instead of merchant or circulating capital' led to a ne# type of profit generation
$Hudson /&.
Conse1uently' capitalism emerged as one of the key elements of production during the
Industrial Revolution. Capitalism is a social system ased on the recognition of individual
rights' including property rights in #hich all property is privately o#ned $“Capitalism"&. It is
also fundamentally individualistic ecause the each person is the centre of capitalist
endeavour $“Capitalism"!The +uropean +nlightenment&. The concept of capitalism is dra#n
from the +nlightenment ideology on individuality that all individuals should e free to pursue
their o#n interests. It is evident that capitalism played a ma0or role in Dickens’ #orks
particularly in 2reat +5pectations as noted through Pip’s desire for #ealth and gentility and
the centrality of money #ithin the novel itself as evidenced y characters like :iss Havisham'her father and the greedy Compeyson $House&. In Hard Times' one encounters the ank o#ner
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:r. *oundery #ho rose from poverty to ecome a self!made industrialist $Dickens ()&. It is
evident that capitalism' as one of the effects of the Industrial Revolution' shaped the literary
#orks of the nineteenth century #riters such as Charles Dickens. The parody employed y
Dickens in descriing :r. *oundery is an indication of his repugnance to#ards capitalism;
“- ig' loud man' #ith a stare' and a metallic laugh. - man made
out of coarse material' #hich seemed to have een stretched to makeso much out of him. - man #ith a great puffed head and forehead'
s#elled veins in his temples' and such a strained skin to his face that
it seemed to hold his eyes open' and lift his eyero#s up. - man
#ith a pervading appearance on him of eing inflated like a alloon'
and ready to start." $()&
:r. *oundery is a representative of capitalism and Dickens’ attitude to#ards him is
synonymous to his approach to entrepreneurship. :r. *oundery’s description influences the
reader to dislike him' in the same #ay that Dickens dislikes capitalism. *oundery is
characterised as a “po#erful individual driven y greed and guided y a distorted vie# of
human nature" and he is a “self serving capitalist< rather than an insightful for#ard!looking
crafter of a ne# industrial age'" thus “representing all that is #rong #ith capitalism"$=ldham&. *oundery is a typical industrialist #ho vie#s his employees as “mere factors of
production' not much different from the machines they operate" and his insensile manner
to#ards the #orkers
demonstrates the “middle class efforts to avoid fraternisation and social contact #ith the lo#er
classes." $=ldham&.
7imilar to Dickens' 2erman socialist >arl :ar5 also critici3ed capitalism for its oppression of
the poor leading to the term “:ar5ism'" a theory ased on the suggestion that
industriali3ation polari3ed society into the ourgeois and the much larger proletariat' #ho are
the #orking class leading to a conflict et#een the t#o classes as noted in The Communist
:anifesto #hich he co!authored #ith 9riedrich +ngels;
“The modern ourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of
feudal society has not done a#ay #ith class anatagonisms. It has ut
estalished ne# classes' ne# conditions of oppression' ne# forms of
struggle in place of the old ones."
:ar5 sa# the industriali3ation process as the logical dialectical progression of feudal
economic codes' necessary for the full development of capitalism $7o#ell )?(&. :ar5ism
sympathi3es #ith the #orking class or proletariat and espouses the elief that the ultimate
interest of #orkers est matches those of humanity in general. :ar5ists are committed to a
#orkers’ revolution as a means of achieving human emancipation and enlightenment. The
theory of :ar5ism promotes socialism #hich is a political and economic system in #hich
everyone has an e1ual right to a share of a country’s #ealth and main industries #hich areo#ned and controlled y the government $Heilroner&. ,ritten during the same period as the
development of :ar5ism and socialist thought' Charles Dickens’ #orks #ere also concerned
#ith the relationships et#een the #orkers and the industrialists' and the poor and the rich.
In addition to :ar5ism' other theories such as Charles Dar#in’s Theory of +volution $(?/8&
also emerged during the Industrial Revolution in #hich Dar#in claimed there is a variation in
every organism #hich competes for limited resources' resulting in a struggle for survival.
Dar#in’s concept that organisms compete for survival is noted in a capitalist society in #hich
the capitalists are the only ones #ith access to economic resources #hile the poor are
deprived. Therefore' the lo#er class struggles to survive y resorting to crime' the #omen are
reduced to prostitutes #hile children and men are su0ected to lo# paying 0os such as factory
#orkers' dustmen and chimney s#eepers. Dar#in’s concept that there is a struggle forsurvival has een translated into “survival of the fittest" also kno#n as “7ocial Dar#inism" a
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theory developed y nineteenth century philosopher Herert 7pencer $(?)@!(8@& y
applying the theory of natural selection to social' political and economic issues' #hich #as
further adopted y Aictorian #riters such as 2eorge +lliot' or even earlier in the century'
authors like 4ane -usten also adopted the theory and incorporated it into their novels.
“7ocial Dar#inism" also played a ma0or role in the development of naturalism and its
application in literature. -s noted in most naturalists’ #orks' the ma0or focus is on the lo#erclass #ho oviously struggle to survive in an economically competitive #orld. The capitalist
environment impacts their #ell eing y su0ecting them to e5ploitation' unearale living
conditions leading to diseases and death. The fittest poor manage to survive y resorting to
crime' other#ise the capitalist environment #ill s#allo# them up. It is evident that during the
Industrial Revolution' the environment favoured the capitalist #hile the socially
disadvantaged suffered< a phenomenon #hich has e5tended to our contemporary #orld.
,riting during the Industrial Revolution' all the theories and ideas e5pounded during this
period oviously impacted Charles Dickens #ho is applauded for his application of
naturalism into his #orks.
-part from the intellectual and scientific theories and developments during the Industrial
Revolution' industriali3ation led to the creation of the factory system #hich #as largelyresponsile for the rise of the modern environment' due to the rural B uran migration of
people in search of employment. The Industrial Revolution appeared to e a positive
phenomenon' ut it also had a negative impact on society as it created a rapid population
increase in the cities leading to an escalation in slum communities. iving conditions varied
from the splendour of the middle class to the s1ualor of the lo#er class laourers. 7ocial
commentators such as Toynee' the ,es' the Hammonds and novelists such as Charles
Dickens stressed the “rapidity of change and the terrile effects of industrial transformation
upon the living standards of the masses" $Hudson ()&.
In contrast to the middle class grandeur' the lo#er class lived in small overcro#ded houses
#here poor sanitation led to fatal diseases such as cholera' typhoid and small po5. - large
numer of the #orking class also died from chest infections caused y the dust from mines
and smoke from factories #hile some children and men died at the factories due to accidents'
mutilations and poisonous chemicals. Dickens’ novels' particularly *leak House and Hard
Times' specifically illustrate the living conditions of the #orking class. 9ortunately' the
standards of living for the poor egan to advance after the government passed pulic health
acts in (?) #hich controlled sanitation' hygiene and setting of oundaries on construction of
homes.
:oreover' human relations #ere definitely altered y the people’s preoccupation #ith the
accumulation of #ealth during the Industrial Revolution as noted y Thomas Carlyle in (?)E;
“. . . ho# #ealth has more and more increased and at the same time
gathered itself more and more into the masses' strangely alteringthe old relations and increasing the distance et#een the rich
and poor." $1td. y Hudson (@&
The kindness' good#ill' trust and communalism that e5isted during the pre!industrial era' #as
replaced y “enmity' suspicion and distrust" et#een masters and #orkers $Tufnell 1td. y
Hudson (@&. Conse1uently' as noted y Carlyle that the rich and poor ecome more separated'
the masters do not personally ac1uaint #ith the #orkers as evidenced y Dickens in Hard
Times #herey the laourers are also called the “Hands" #hich confirms the indifference of
the capitalists to#ards their employees.
During the Industrial Revolution' there #ere limited educational opportunities for children<
therefore' it #as etter for them to #ork. Child laour #as an integral part of the system as the
children #ere far paid less than adults $andes /&. They #orked under terrile conditionssuch as long hours #ith poor lighting' deficient ventilation and lack of protective clothing.
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Ho#ever #ith social outcry and reports of child ause' la#s prohiiting child laour and the
factory acts in (?E% stipulated that no child under the age of t#elve #as to e employed as a
factory #orker. Ho#ever' it is unfortunate that some of these reforms #ere implemented long
after people like Charles Dickens had already een forced into the gruesome and traumati3ing
factory #ork at his age.
+ven though the Industrial Revolution rought an economic oom to the middle classsegment of 2reat *ritain and the rest of +urope through the emergence of the capitalists' it
crushed the poor #hose e5istence #as overshado#ed y the success of the middle class.
Dickens’ novels e5pose the slums and filth of ondon and its surroundings y realistically
depicting the corruption of its
society. Thus the Industrial Revolution evoked sympathy and a desire for social change in
#riters like Charles Dickens.
1.3 The Victorian Society
The Aictorian society is marked y Fueen Aictoria’s reign from (? to (8@(< thus' it is
referred to as the Aictorian era. Fueen Aictoria’s si5ty four year reign is the longest in *ritish
history and the cultural' political' economic' industrial and scientific changes that occurred
during her reign #ere remarkale. ,hen Aictoria ascended to the throne' *ritain #asessentially agrarian and rural' ut y the time of her death' the country #as vastly urani3ed
and largely industriali3ed.
During the Industrial Revolution' the Aictorian society consisted of a hierarchical structure
comprising of the upper class' follo#ed y the middle class' the #orking class and the
impoverished under class $Cody&. These different social classes could e distinguished y
ine1ualities in areas such as politics' authority' #ealth' education' culture' #orking and living
conditions. :emers of the lo#er class #ere perceived as irrational' immature' superstitious'
rutal' e5cessively se5ual and filthy $,ohl&. Due to the po#erlessness of the lo#er class
memers' they #ere su0ugated to e5ploitation and treatment similar to that of animals.
=ne prominent feature of the Aictorian society #as the aundant poor. *ecause of poverty'
children #ere forced into child laour and forced to #ork as chimney s#eepers and they could
cra#l up the t#elve y fourteen inch chimneys' some as small as seven inches s1uare' so that
they #ould clean out the annual average of forty gallons of soot that #as deposited there.
7ome oys ecame rat catchers and they #ere re1uired to use arsenic to poison the rats' ut as
this could e e5pensive' they could also use a ferret to flush the rats out and kill them $>elsey
(&. Children could also ecome messengers and it #as 1uite common for a gentleman to ask a
neary street urchin to run errands for him. Charles Dickens depicts 4o in *leak House' as a
street urchin and he is asked y ady Dedlock for some information concerning 6emo. 7ome
children could also #ork as mud larks #hich meant that they had to #ade into the Thames
River at lo# tide to scrounge for its of coal' rope' ones and copper nails' ut they had to e
careful so that they #ould not cut their are feet.Gran overpopulation resulted in the poor living in appalling and overcro#ded housing
conditions. Improvement in the sanitation meant increased rent #hich most of the #orkers
could not afford. :ore living space per family #ould increase the distance et#een home and
#ork' therefore it meant that more families #ould live further a#ay from #ork. The solution
#as to overcro#d the cramped s1ualid living 1uarters as portrayed y Charles Dickens in
*leak House' Tom ! -ll ! -lone’s and the Coketo#n inhaitants in Hard Times.
In the early nineteenth century' there #as a high rate of prostitution #hich came to e kno#n
as the great social evil. *et#een (?%? and (?@' there #ere a lot of institutions #orking to
“reclaim" these “fallen #omen" from the streets and at the same time restraining them from
entering the respectale society y forcing them to #ork as domestic servants. The theme of
prostitution and the “fallen #oman" ecame a staple feature of Aictorian literature and politics. Prostitution #as perceived as a social prolem rather than 0ust a fact of uran life.
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Prostitutes #ere often presented as victims in sentimental novels such as +li3aeth 2askell’s
:ary *urton and Charles Dickens’ =liver T#ist. The emphasis on the purity of #omen led to
the portrayal of the prostitute as soiled' corrupt and in need of cleansing. 7ympathetic #riters
raised economic deprivation as a ma0or cause of prostitution.
The emphasis on female purity #as allied to the importance of the homemaking role of
#omen' #ho' y her domesticity' helped to create a space free from pollution and corruptionfrom the city. The prostitute came to have symolic significance as the emodiment of the
violation of that divide. The anonymity of the city led to the increase in prostitution and
unsanctioned se5ual relationships. -ltick attests that “Dickens and other #riters of his time
associated prostitution #ith the mechani3ation of modern life' portraying prostitutes as human
commodities consumed and then thro#n a#ay like refuse" $)/&.
The status of #omen in the Aictorian era is often seen as a discrepancy et#een +ngland’s
national po#er and #ealth and #hat many' then and no#' consider its appalling social
conditions. During this period' difficulties escalated for #omen ecause of the vision of the
ideal #oman shared y the society. ,omen could not vote and they could not ecome
property o#ners. The role of #omen #as to have children and they could not hold a
professional 0o unless it #as that of eing a teacher or a domestic servant. 9urthermore'#omen #ere only confined to the domestic sphere and their duty #as to e in charge of
servants and to organi3e parties #hich #ould promote the prestige of their husands and
enale them to meet ne# people and estalish economically important relationships. -
#oman #as also re1uired to e “good tempered'" compassionate to#ards the suffering and
#ell mannered and clean $*urton /@&.
+ducation #as vie#ed as the economic necessity of men only. The attitude to#ards #omen
and education #as that education need not e of the same e5tended' classical and commercial
characteristic as that of men. ,omen #ere supposed to e educated in issues that involved
domesticity. 7u0ects such as history' geography and general literature #ere important' ut
not atin and 2reek. ,omen #ho #anted to study la#' physics' engineering or medicine
#ere satiri3ed and dismissed. The Aictorian society deemed it unnecessary for #omen to
attend university.
Ho#ever' the Aictorian society appeared to e a stale society ecause of the lavish lifestyle
of the aristocracy and the enormous profits gained y the middle class' yet the emergence of
the “ourgeoisie" also meant a massive increase in poverty and uran overpopulation due to
the rural B uran migration. 9urthermore' #omen #ere also oppressed as they #ere confined
to the domestic sphere and they #ere not #elcome in the masculine pulic domain of politics
and usiness. Children #ere also e5ploited as they #ere su0ected to child laour and they
#orked under harsh conditions. The Aictorian society' particularly the middle class' upheld
strong moral values and morals' yet they did little to help the poor or change their condition.
1.4 The Victorian NovelThe nineteenth century #as the great age of the novel' #hich is descried y Henry 4ames as
“an intricately in#rought aesthetic and psychological design' and a sutle alancing of formal
and moral tensions" $1td. y Pykett (&. The term novel did not arise until the end of the
eighteenth century although the content itself had een een formed earlier in the century y
Defoe' Richardson' 9ielding and 7molett $>arl E&. Ian ,att further attests to this point y
stating that Richardson and 9ielding #ere the founders of a ne# form #riting $8&. This form
of literary art #as ound to flourish since there #as an increase in literacy as the middle class
rose in po#er and importance $Daiches ?8@&. -s industrialisation spread throughout *ritain' it
#as common that the novel ecame a means of portraying life and its social and moral values
familiar to the readers. Thus' the Aictorian novel ecame greatly kno#n for its concern for the
social prolems of the time.
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The ma0or Aictorian novelists are Charles Dickens $(?()!(?@&' ,illiam :akepeace
Thackeray $(?(( B (?E& and 2eorge +lliot $(?(8 B (???&. Charles Dickens like Thomas
Hardy' depicts the conflicts et#een individuals and society' and also criticises the nineteenth
century social structure $Peck and Coyle ((&. The early Aictorian novelists accepted middle
class values such as decorum' gentility' purity and property #hich #ere important during that
time. In most Aictorian novels' class pre0udice is also a ma0or concern. To many of hiscontemporaries' Dickens #as emphatically the novelist of his age'" in #hose novels
“posterity #ill read more clearly than in any age of contemporary records' the character of our
nineteenth century life" $Pykett ?&. D.-. :iller' a critic' contended that “Dickens’ novels are
oth a symptom and a criti1ue of the disciplinary society< they are the site of the first
appearance in +nglish fiction of a massive themati3ation of social discipline" $1td. y Pykett
(?&. 9urthermore' *arara ecker also suggested that the “social criti1ue of Dickens’ early
novels develops' after mid!career' into a more comprehensive vision of Aictorian +ngland"
$E8(&.
Dickens’ novels #ere landmarks of literature in +nglish and of +nglish culture in the
nineteenth century< thus' he is similar to the other Aictorian novelists in the sense that he is
ale to address the middle class values through satiri3ing them $Pykett &. He critici3es themiddle class for placing so much value on morality' yet it is the same people #ho e5ploit the
poor' therefore his Aictorian novel challenges the middle class value of morality. ionel
Trilling and Harold *loom say;
“If the middle class is properly to e descried in a harsh fashion'
then it is a parado5 or an anomaly that the national culture #hich
this class dominated should have given so much hearty a response
to #riters for #hom the indictment of the failings of the middle class
#as a chief part of their enterprise. :any of the individual memers
should themselves turn a 1uestioning eye upon its ethos and seek to
repudiate or meliorate those unamiale traits that #ere commonly
ascried to it." $E&
7imilarly' Thackeray in Aanity 9air is mainly concerned #ith the contrast et#een human
pretentions and human #eakness and he portrayed the middle class social stratum and its
hypocrisy. Dickens is e1ually a#are of the precariousness or vulneraility of the ne#
respectale social conception of the self and the uried life that is hidden eneath the veneer
of polite manners $Peck and Coyle )&.
Dorothy Aan 2hent' one of the t#entieth century critics' has identified characteri3ation “as a
specific response to the nineteenth century processes of reification and alienation in #hich
people #ere ecoming things and things #ere ecoming more important than people" $1td. y
Peck and Coyle ()?&. It is true that #ith the influ5 of industrialisation' people ecame like
machines as noted in the description of the #orkers in Charles Dickens’ Hard Times;“The #earisome heads #ent up and do#n at the same rate' in hot
#eather and cold' #et #eather and dry' fair #eather and foul.
The measured motion of their shado#s on the #alls' #as the
sustitute Coketo#n had to sho# for the shado#s of
rustling #oods. . . . $88&
The motion of the #orkers is monotonous and automated like that of a machine. In this
passage' Charles Dickens sho#s that the #orkers have ecome synonymous to the machines
as their actions are similar to that of a machine. The Hands are not regarded as individuals
anymore< ut' they are considered as automotives;
“9or the first time in her life' ouisa had come into one of the
d#ellings of the Coket#on Hands< for the first time in her lifeshe #as face to face #ith anything like individuality in
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conne5ion #ith them. 7he kne# of their e5istence y hundreds
and y thousands. 7he kne# #hat results in #ork a given
numer of them #ould produce in a given space of time." $(%(&
ouisa identifies the #orkers through their #ork and not their individual identity. Her
perception sho#s that the #orkers are no# comparale to machines' #hich society identifies
for their roles. +ach #orker has lost his or her individuality ecause of their synonymy to themachine. In this #ay' Dickens fits into the nineteenth century mode of #riting #hich placed
much emphasis on the condition of humanity placed against the ackdrop of industrialisation'
a tradition learnt from the late eighteenth century #riters #ho dramatised the uran life and
“human character #ith a keen eye for the changes #hich the Industrial Revolution rought
into +ngland in his lifetime" $Daiches (@/@&. Dickens’ artistic aility to represent characters
placed in a modernised environment affirms him as one of the most successful authors #hose
“central position in *ritish and -nglophone culture derives in large part from his continuing
appeal to the general or common’ reader" $Pykett %&. 9urthermore' Raymond ,illiam claims
that “Dickens #as a representative of a ne# kind of perceiving the #orld' and sho#ing the
cro#d' the city' modern social forms and institutions' and the po#er of industrialism $1td. y
Pykett&.In some instances' the Aictorian novel continued #ith the literary canon of depicting the
protagonist as a virtuous person. The hero is al#ays a representation of moral earnestness and
#holesomeness' including crusades against social evils. 9or e5ample' Charles Dickens
portrays =liver T#ist as a character #ho maintains his virtue despite the corrupt #orld in
#hich he finds himself. He is 0u5taposed against a tainted society< yet' he remains pure. -
constant conflict is #aged et#een goodness and evil' innocence and corruption. The idea of
0u5taposing good and evil is also prevalent in the eighteenth century #ritings of *lake and
,ords#orth #ho #rote in and transitional age of the pre!industrial era and the modern #orld.
7imilarly' ,illiam :akepeace Thackeray' one of the reno#ned Aictorian novelists' also
depicts in his novel Aanity 9air' ho# “the demands of society operate on human character"
$1td. y Daiches (@E@&. ,hile Dickens focuses on the poor and their struggle to survive in a
demanding #orld' Thackeray’s places much focus on the characters and scenes of the upper
classes.
:oreover' a ne# #ay of characteri3ation #as noted in the Aictorian novel. Instead of the
#riter introducing or descriing the character' the reader could no# learn a character through
their speech $>arl )@&. -lthough the Aictorian novel lacked the t#entieth century’s suitale
method of the use of psychoanalysis' and revelations y the “inner man'" the nineteenth
century novelist relied on vernacular conversation to disclose the conscious $)@&. Dialogue'
therefore' ecame a common feature of the novel. In addition' Dickens’ novels also ear some
theatrical elements in the #ay in #hich certain characters deliver their speeches' #hich sho#s
that the conventions of the theatre have een asored or replaced y the novel $(@&. Theconversational idiom attracted large audiences' even the illiterate' #ho could hear their o#n
accents as noted through :ag#itch and 4oe in 2reat +5pectations' 7leary and 7tephen in
Hard Times' 9agin and his cre# in =liver T#ist' and 4o and the memers of Tom!-ll!-lone’s
in *leak House. The po#er of language in a novel is attested y :ichael 9oucalt #ho
asolutely vie#s language as “perfomative and operative; language does not merely represent
the #orld' ut it does #ork in the #orld" $1td. y Pykett (&.
-ccording to Ian ,att;
“The actors in the plot and the scenes of their actions had to
e placed in a ne# literary perspective; the plot had to e
acted out y particular people in particular circumstances'
rather than' as had een common in the past' y generalhuman types against a ackground primarily determined
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the appropriate literary convention." $()&
Ian ,att’s description of the novel led to the development of realism and the impulse to
descrie the everyday #orld that the reader can recogni3e as an element of the Aictorian
novel. This ne# literary genre re0ected the romantic idealism and dependence on estalished
moral truths and ecame a philosophy that #as greatly pessimistic and deterministic. -s
realist novels' Dickens’ #orks challenge the inhumanity of ne# social legislation. Dickensalso accurately depicts the lo#er class trying to survive in the ne# uran society as more
people migrated from the rural landscape to an urani3ed society. ,ith the tide of
industriali3ation' a ne# sense of individualism #as ushered in and people had to find #ays of
fending for themselves in an impersonal uran #orld. Dickens’ #orks depict the ourgeoisie
e5ploiting the #orkers in an effort to gain more profit' #hile the lo#er class memers #ere
forced to engage in crime. 2eorge +lliot’s novel 7ilas :arner' for instance' depicts the
selfishness of the ourgeoisie and the struggle to survive of the poor. 7imilarly' Dickens
learnt from his o#n circumstance and oservations' comining an e5traordinary relish for the
odd' the colourful and the dramatic in uran life and in human character #ith a keen eye for
the changes #hich the Industrial Revolution rought into +ngland.
-s a realist #riter' Dickens’ novels such as =liver T#ist and Hard Times depict the impact ofurani3ation on the poor leading to the emergence of a criminal class and the ui1uity of
commerciali3ation and the profit motive and its dissolving effects upon family and
friendships. Therefore' the Aictorian novel confronts the reader #ith grim depictions of
human suffering and misery. :oreover' Aictorian #riters agree that the machine principle' the
manifest antithesis to the spirit' #as corrupting the life of +ngland $Trilling and *loom &. Its
grossest and most readily oservale effect #as the dehumani3ation of the #orker' #ho had
ecome a mere' disposale element in the process of production' an o0ect and ra# material to
e used as needed' his cost as a source of energy reckoned in no different #ay than that of
coal $&.
9urthermore' the Aictorian novel also ventures into social realms and deals #ith suclasses of
humanity' focusing on gender' class and empire. There is fre1uent attention on the upper
middle class +nglishmen in ondon and its environs' yet ehind and around these men #ere
#omen' #orkers and servants. The Aictorian society #as a patriarchal society< the men #ere
the ones #ho #ere economically empo#ered' #hile the #omen #ere forced to depend on men
for financial staility. In addition' the Aictorian society #as particular aout class and any
form of interaction et#een classes #as not permissile and inter B class marriages #ere not
accepted in society. Aictorian novels depict #omen #ho are usually confined to the domestic
sphere and forced conform to societal norms. If at any point a female character is reellious'
she is punished until she ecomes docile as she is e5pected.
7trong images and symols also characterised the nineteenth century novel< thus' the novelists
often created layers of comple5 symolic meaning that reached far deeper than the superficial pattern of social action suggested to the casual reader. 9or e5ample' in *leak House' Dickens
uses images such as fog social in0ustice and moral decadence;
“9og every#here. 9og up the river' #here it flo#s among the tiers of
shipping' and the #aterside pollutions of a great $and dirty& city.
9og on the +sse5 marshes' fog on the >entish heights. . . fog in the
stem and o#l of the afternoon pipe of the #rathful skipper' do#n
in his close cain< fog cruelly pinching the toes and fingers of
his shivering little ’prentice oy on deck." $(&
The fog is representative of the corruption in the city of ondon' and its effects on some
memers of society such as the ’prentice oy.’ The repetition of the #ord fog’ signifies the
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intensity of vice in the society. The Aictorian novel e5poses social ills through strong images
that realistically depict society’s neglect of the poor and corrupt amition to elong in the
middle class and the division et#een classes.
The prison is representative of one’s confinement to their social class as evidenced in 2reat
+5pectations. Pip is confined to his social class until a mysterious enefactor' #ho later turns
out to e the criminal :ag#itch' fulfils his dream of ecoming a gentleman so that he can ea memer of the middle class.
The Aictorian novel #as a vehicle #hich #riters used to deliver social criticism. It #as a
source that gave the reading pulic a clear picture of #hat #as happening during the
nineteenth century. Thus it can e concluded that the Aictorian novel #as a realistic depiction
of +ngland and the rest of *ritain in the industrial era. The novel #as a ne# form that #as
developed from drama' and Dickens’ novels have some theatrical elements such as dialogue
#hich enales the reader to identify the personalities of the characters in the te5ts and to
understand the symolic role of each character. Therefore' the Aictorian novel' through its
realistic depiction of characters and the Aictorian society in general' enaled the readers to
understand #hat #as going on in +ngland at that time.
!"#T$R T!R$$% The #oor in &ers&ective3.1. The #oor 'aw "ct
The Poor a# -ct of (?% #as a system of la#s #hich #as introduced in +ngland and the
rest of *ritain to provide pulic relief under a system #hich re1uired that all those #ho
re1uired assistance such as the #ido#s' the sick and the unemployed' had to e
accommodated at the #orkhouses. -ccording to the Poor a# -ct itself' there is no section
#hich stipulated that the poor #ere to e harshly treated' ut the commissioners of the Poor
a#s #ere the ones #ho created the policy of rutality. Roerts stated; “These
commissioners' three in numer and #ith e5tensive po#ers to form and supervise the ne#ly
created poor la# unions' #ished local guardians to give relief to ale B odied paupers only if
they entered a #orkhouse" $8?&. This raises concern for the sick #ho #ere most likely forced
into laour despite their physical condition. ,orkhouses #ere institutions in #hich the poor
#ere housed and they #orked in order to receive some relief' thus it #as called “indoor relief"
$Roerts 8?&. -t the #orkhouses one could find men' #omen' children' the old and sick #ho
#ere allocated the specific #orkhouses y the parishes in the districts to #hich they elonged.
9or e5ample' a poor man or family living in *oston #as e5pected to e admitted to a *oston
#orkhouse as directed y a parish council or “eadle."
The rise of capitalism rought notale prosperity #ithin the middle class' yet the Industrial
Revolution #as a period of immense poverty among the ma0ority of the +nglish citi3ens.
Despite claims that industriali3ation created employment' one should also ear in mind that
the transition from rural to urani3ation could also economically affects a lot of people' as
there is high competition to survive in a capitalist society. 7ome people managed to ecomememers of the middle class or the ourgeoisie' #hile others ecame skilled artisans'
tradesmen and professionals. Ho#ever' every memer of society did not elong to the middle
class' there #ere people #ho elonged to the lo#er class #ho #ere mostly unemployed' and
the Aictorian middle class laelled them “paupers." This #as a class of people #ho #ere
receiving the poor relief as stipulated y the poor la#. These “paupers" #ere usually people
#ho #ere not only unemployed or sick' ut received insufficient #ages.
Prior to the Poor a# -mendment -ct' relief #as distriuted to the poor citi3ens of the
+nglish society #hether they #ere employed or not. Ho#ever' in (?%' the -ct implemented
a ne# dimension #herey anyone #ho needed relief #as re1uired to ecome a memer of a
#orkhouse and they had to #ork in order to receive assistance. Ho#ever' it is stated that
outdoor relief still continued and the Royal Commission on the Poor a#s of (?) B (?%emphasi3ed that outdoor relief to the ale B odied poor #as a “master evil of the present
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system" $Royal Commission on the Poor a#s Report )8&. 9rom the orthodo5 poor la#
administrator’s perspective' aid in the form of #ages #as a serious crime ecause some of
these people #ere employed< henceforth it upset the laour market $Rose E@&. The Royal
Commission stipulated that outdoor relief #as to e stopped and assistance #as to e given in
“#ell regulated #orkhouses" $Royal Commission on the Poor a#s Report )E)&. The
1uestion still remains #hether this #as a plausile solution and esides' outdoor relief stillcontinued' #hich sho#s the central authority for poor la# administration’s failure to stop it.
Ho#ever' even though the allo#ance system continued' it #as no# “relief in aid of small and
irregular earnings" $Rose E@8&.
The #ithdra#al of outdoor relief #as further enforced y the government and the task #as
given to political Poor a# Commissioners #ho issued orders to *oards of 2uardians' #ho
#ere the custodians of poor relief. -fter a 2eneral =rder #as issued as the =utdoor Relief
Prohiitory
=rder in (?%%' every ale B odied male or female #as to receive relief only in the Gnion
#orkhouse $2len )@?&. +very person #ho received relief #as not allo#ed to e employed
any#here else other than the #orkhouse. Ho#ever' the 1uestion still remains #hether the
disaled and the old #ho #ere also re1uired to #ork at the #orkhouses.The *oard of 2uardians stated that it #as more e5pensive to keep a “pauper" in a #orkhouse
ecause they also ecame responsile of all the costs and need of the rest of the family'
#hereas outdoor relief consisted of lo#er #ages #hich could e supplemented y other
earnings from other private charities $2len )@8&. 7uch a situation e5poses the mistreatment
and starvation to #hich the poor #ere su0ected at the #orkhouses ecause there #ere not
enough funds to cover clothing and food re1uirements for all the people in these shelters.
:oreover' the allo#ance system demorali3ed the poor ecause “those #ho applied for reliefs
#ere invarialy given a meagre pittance #hich oth they and the 2uardians kne# #as
insufficient to maintain them" $Rose E)@&. Thus' the poor la# has also een descried as a
“harsh' repressive system shot through #ith notions of social control" $,e and ,e %8&.
-fter receiving their dole' the poor had to find other means of surviving such as #orking long
hours for lo# #ages and unpleasant tasks' or #orse' egging and stealing. 7uch circumstances
raised concerns on the government’s duty to cur such a0ect poverty as the relief received y
the poor #as insufficient. Ho#ever' some guardians 0ustified the stringent conditions at the
#orkhouses y claiming that the resources of the ratepayers #ere insufficient $>ing EE&.
The most critici3ed aspect of the Poor a# -ct #as the administration of the #orkhouses.
Roerts commented' “The principal cruelty of the 6e# Poor a# #as the #orkhouse" $8?&.
ife in the #orkhouse #as 1uite harsh as most of the *oard of 2uardians did not provide
ade1uate care for the poor. The #orkhouse inmates #ere not given enough clothing and the
clothes they received on arrival #ere the same ones they #ore every day of their lives'
#hether #orking or sleeping. *elo# is a sketch sho#ing children in a #orkhouse during mealtime;
Picture (; “+ye ,itness -ccounts"
9rom the aove dra#ing' one can also notice that most of the children #ere shoeless and their
clothes #ere ragged. This realistic depiction of arefooted children eing fed on read and
gruel reveals the lack of care that #as given to #orkhouse inmates' especially the vulnerale
children. -s noted from the picture' these assailale children #ere not provided #ith ade1uate
clothing to protect them from the cold +nglish #inter' #hich left them susceptile to austere
living conditions. 7uch a representation is also an appeal to society to recogni3e the
government’s failure to improve the unpleasant living conditions of the #orkhouse inmates.
The follo#ing is a testimony y an inmate 7arah Carpenter #ho #as intervie#ed y The
-shton Chronicle on ) 4une in (?%8;“=ur common food #as oatcake. It #as thick and coarse.
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This oatcake #as put into cans. *oiled milk and #ater #as
poured into it. This #as our reakfast and supper. =ur dinner
#as potato pie #ith oiled acon it' a it here and a it there'
so thick #ith fat #e could scarce eat it' though #e #ere hungry
enough to eat anything. Tea #e never sa#' nor utter. ,e had
cheese and ro#n read once a year. ,e #ere only allo#ed threemeals a day though #e got up at five in the morning and #orked
till nine at night." $“+ye ,itness -ccounts"&
=ther than eing inade1uately clothed' it is evident that the #orkhouse inmates #ere also
malnourished' #hich further confirms the notion that the government #as not providing
enough funds to feed the poor' or they #ere misused y the *oard of 2uardians. =ne of the
popular ne#spapers in the nineteenth century' The Times' #as #ell kno#n for its criticism of
the poor la# administration and the treatment of the #orkhouse inmates' and one of the
ne#spaper correspondents #rote; “Is it not 7ir' horrile' that you cannot no# take up a
ne#spaper on any day #ithout finding one or more accounts of starvation" $1td. y Roerts
8?&. The ne#spaper also reported that at the *ridge#ater #orkhouse “a meagre diet and
congestion killed off %( percent of the average numer of inmates" $1td. y Roerts 8?&.:oreover' it #as also discovered that at the ,esthampnett #orkhouse t#o children died of
starvation and another #as forced to eat a mouse as there #as no food $8?&. *elo# is a
testimony from one of the Poor a# 2uardians' +mmeline Pankhurst #ho further
sustantiated the unpleasantness and harshness to #hich the inmates #ere su0ected;
“,hen I came into office I found that the la# #as eing very
harshly administered. The old oard had een made up of the
kind of men #ho are kno#n as rate savers. They #ere guardians'
not of the poor ut of the rates 9or instance' the inmates #ere eing
very poorly fed. I found the old folks in the #orkhouse sitting on
ackless forms' or enches. They had no privacy' no possessions' not
even a locker. -fter I took office I gave the old people comfortale
,indsor chairs to sit in' and in a numer of #ays #e managed to make
their e5istence more endurale." $“:y =#n 7tory" 1td. in “(?% Poor a#"&
The inmates #ere treated inhumanely y the authorities and their survival could only e
sustained y some of the 2uardians #ho #ere sensitive and merciful like the reno#ned
+mmeline Pankhurst. Ho#ever the poor administration of the #orkhouses is also an
indication of the lack of proper management y the oard memers #ho #ere the overseers of
the #orkhouses. This also raises 1uestions on the role of the +nglish government in fending
for the poor and its failure to administer the proper care for the poor.
Joung inmates #ere even more vulnerale to malnutrition and #inter diseases as their
#orkhouse uniforms #ere not designed to #ithstand harsh +nglish #inters. +mmelinePankhurst’s autoiography further reinforces this point as she descries the condition of the
young children and the uniforms they #ore;
“The first time I #ent into the place I #as horrified to see little girls
seven and eight years on their knees scruing the cold stones of
the long corridors. These little girls #ere clad' summer and #inter'
in thin cotton frocks' lo# in the neck and short sleeved. -t
night they #ore nothing at all' night dresses eing considered too
good for paupers. The fact that ronchitis #as epidemic among
them most of the time had not suggested to the guardians any
change in the fashion of their clothes." $1td. in “(?% Poor a#"&
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Discrimination is also very evident in this passage as it sho#s that eing young and also poor'
su0ects the children to cruelty and deprivation of asic needs such as #arm clothing in
#inter' thus they suffered from illnesses such as ronchitis and #orse still' pneumonia.
6ot only #ere #orkhouse inmates victims of starvation' ut they #ere also flogged and
detained as if they #ere in prison. It is reported that at a #orkhouse in *radford' a #oman #as
“ared to her #aist and #hipped" #hile at Crediton' t#o inmates' ock and Dart' “#ereconfined to an unheated' damp' #indo#less' floorless' edless outhouse and #ere' one day'
taken to the courtyard' stripped naked and mopped #ith cold #ater" $Roerts 8?&. =ne
#onders #hy life in the #orkhouses #as harsh and rutal and the ans#er is provided y one
of the assistant poor la# commissioners' 4ames >ay #ho said; “=ur intention is to make the
#orkhouse as like prisons as possile" $Hansard (@(%&. *elo# is a picture of t#o little oys'
Roert ,ithers and 4onathan Cooke' #ho #ere punished for ed #etting and they #ere
placed in a punitive outhouse;
Picture ); “9areham B ,orkhouse"
-s one can see' the outhouse' #as a stunted room' #ith grass or stra# as the floor. It almost
appears like an animal house and not meant for humans. The oys #ere also kept in the
outhouse for ten days and proaly #ithout food and or lanket$s& in the evening for coverand #armth $“The 9areham ,orkhouse 7candal"&. This account is not fictional' ut it is a true
incident ecause the evidence #as e5tracted from the ,estury :anor :useum as an
archives. =ne can also note that the #orkhouses #ere not as charitale as they #ere meant to
e' ut rather “shocking to every principle of reason and every feeling of humanity" $,e
and ,e 1td. y Halevi )?%&. >arl Polanyi also called them “places of horror" $1td. y
Trevelyan E%(&.
The Poor a# -ct #as after all' a harsh la# #hich on the surface appeared as if it provided
for the poor' yet it su0ected them to dehumani3ation. -lthough it may have seemed as if the
poor #ere sufficiently accommodated at the #orkhouses' they #ere actually oppressed #hile
those #ho #ere not living in the #orkhouses #ere forced to #ork and they could no longer e
provided #ith any aid. The authorities elieved that the paupers #ere la3y and idle' yet they
failed to understand that they #ere poor ecause of lack of employment and if they did find
any #ork at all' it #as al#ays lo# paying petty #ork like s#eeping or repairing roads. +ven
though the Poor a#s #ere enacted to assist the poor' they did nothing to change their plight
or improve their situation. -s evidenced y the testimonies' the poor #ere further e5ploited
through physical and emotional ause.
3.2 The 'ivin( conditions o) the &oor
During the Industrial Revolution' the poor #ere living under s1ualid conditions' despite the
economic oom that segments of the +nglish society #as e5periencing. The early nineteenth
to mid nineteenth century #as a period in #hich the poor' as the lo#est memers of society
and providers of the re1uired laour' they did not enefit from the profit #hich they managedto generate through their hard #ork and toil. - great emphasis has een placed on the positive
impact of industriali3ation' ut one cannot ignore the distress and social an5iety among the
poor. It #as the middle class or rather the ourgeoisie" #ho consumed the profit #hile the
#orking class sacrificed their humanity. It is also important to note that urani3ation due to
industrial developments #as a doule edged s#ord ecause of the “presence of a0ect poverty
and its contrast #ith the affluence of the relatively rich' of the seeming degradation of the
physical environment and massing of people into overcro#ded cities< and of the #orsening of
relationships et#een poor and the rich..." $-ltick /&. It #as only to#ards the end of the
century that the lives of the poor greatly improved as there #ere la#s that monitored their
living conditions and the health acts #hich improved the sanitation at the #orkers’ houses and
these shall e discussed later in the last chapter of this research paper.
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,ith the tide of the Industrial Revolution' to#ns gre# very rapidly as factories encouraged
rural B uran migration from different parts of +urope. It is estimated that in :anchester in
the (?@s' et#een forty thousand and fifty thousand people lived in cellars due to lack of
sufficient housing to accommodate the increasing numers of inhaitants in the uran areas
$-ltick %%&. -s demand for accommodation vastly increased' houses #ere hurriedly uilt #ith
poor standards and little regard for hygiene as stated y Richard -ltick;“...#ere long ro#s and locks' ne#ly uilt #ith the cheapest
of materials' or sudivided old houses' all designed to cram
the most people into the least space. In iverpool as late
as the si5ties' there #ere EE' @@@ men' #omen and children
for every s1uare mile. ...These teeming slums #ere the sites
of almost unimaginale degradation. $%&
The living conditions of the poor raises concern on the +nglish government and its efforts to
improve the housing system of the poor. -ltick’s comment implies that little land #as
allocated for the use of uilding houses for the #orkers #hile the rest of it #as for economic
purposes such as uilding more factories. Poor housing system for factory #orkers did not
only e5ist #ithin the Aictorian society' ut it also e5ists #ithin modern society #here theindustrial #orkers live in small shelters #ith poor sanitation ecause that is #hat they can
afford. 7imilarly in the contemporary 7outh -frican society' for e5ample in +ast ondon'
areas like Duncan Aillage are s#armed #ith factory #orkers and the accommodation is
e5tremely elo# sustandard yet affordale. Thus' factory #orkers are considered as non!
entities #ho do not deserve lu5urious living conditions as their purpose in life is to e factory
#orkers and to increase production. It is 1uite ovious that the slums are simply uilt
specifically for the poor; “Here live the poorest of the poor' the #orst paid #orkers #ith
thieves and the victims of prostitution indiscriminately huddled together..." $+ngels @&.
In their homes' the factory #orkers and their families led lives #hich lacked privacy; “arge
families' even t#o or three families' occupied a single room. -s many as seven or eight
persons B children and adults of oth se5es B slept in one ed $or' more likely' on a filthy
collection of rags&...." $-ltick %&. Industrial #orkers led lives #hich #ere no etter than that
of animals as a #hole family or even more could e cramped into a minuscule room. =ne
#onders aout ethics and the need for privacy if parents and children sleep in the same room'
#hich is also noted in -ngela’s -shes y 9rank :cCourt; “Dad and :am lay at the head of
the ed' :alachy and I at the ottom' the t#ins #herever they could find comfort $/8&.
In many cities' large slums appeared in #hich houses #ere small' roads #ere narro# and
services such as ruish collection' se#age #orks and asic #ashing facilities #ere
none5istent;
“Cesspools' #here they e5isted' constantly overflo#ed.
+fficient se#er piping had not yet een invented' andeven if it had' there #as no supply of continuously flo#ing
#ater to carry a#ay the #aste. =pen B air drains therefore
sent the #alk#ays and unpaved streets a#ash #ith filth' thus
creating monstrous enlargements of the disease B reeding
conditions #hich had prevailed in to#ns..." $-ltick %%&.
The poor #ere victims of unearale living conditions ecause of their vulneraility and
desperation to survive in an uran #orld #hich they elieved #as a place of opportunities for
them. :oreover' they could not afford supplies such as clean #ater;
“If #ater #as availale at all' it came from a common tap in
the courtyard #hich dre# on a supply that #as turned on only
an hour or so every day' and it #as usually the runs off from thedrains and cesspools' reused #ithout the intermediate enefit of
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recycling. $%%&.
7uch conditions led to disease and ultimately to high death rates. It is estimated that outreaks
of cholera killed si5teen thousand' four hundred and thirty seven people in +ngland #hile
si5teen thousand died in ondon $%% B %/&. It is 1uite ovious that the poor #ould die from
#ater orne diseases ecause of lack of funds to afford treatment and if the free hospitals
#ere ever availale' it is 1uite deatale if the underprivileged memers of society #ere properly attended at all.
Considering such unhealthy living conditions' one tends to 1uestion the factory o#ners’ and
the government’s role in providing suitale accommodation for the poor. It is also very
alarming to learn that in an economically ooming society such as +ngland' #here the middle
class en0oyed lavish lifestyles' one could also find a great numer of people living in a0ect
poverty. Ho#ever' one also has to ear in mind that in a capitalist society' individualism is
highly noted and there is high competition among the ourgeoisie #ho are out to use the poor
to gain more profit.
9rom a naturalist perspective' one can clearly note the influence of environment on human
ehaviour. The factory #orkers #ere mainly confined to their slums and the only forms of
recreation #ere rothels and gin shops;“...ecause the more the cities gre# around them' the less
chance they had to flee' on a 7unday or holiday' to open
spaces. There #ere no parks or playgrounds until the middle
of the century' and the only places to #hich they could repair
for recreation of a sort #ere the taverns' gin shops' rothels'
occasional cockfights..." $-ltick %/&
The only activities that the poor are e5posed to are drinking alcohol and e5posure to
prostitution at the rothels. -lcoholism defeats psychological gro#th and also causes lack of
amition as the alcohol drinker is al#ays in a state of drunkenness. The poor lack a road
vie# of life as they are not e5posed to opportunities such as education' ecause their lives
revolve around the factory' the slum and the ar. They are not motivated to attain a etter
social status and if they fail to secure employment at the factories' they resort to ecoming
thieves and the #omen ecome prostitutes.
It is evident that the living conditions of the poor during The Industrial Revolution #ere
unpleasant and unearale. :ost of the #orking class people #ere e5posed to disease and
early death due to the poor sanitary and housing facilities at their s1ualid 1uarters. 7ome may
argue that the Industrial Revolution greatly improved the lives of the poor' #hich is only
noted to#ards the ends of the nineteenth century due to the social reforms that the government
implemented in order to ring fairness and order to the living conditions of the poor.
Ho#ever' one cannot ignore the fact that prior to these reforms' the poor lived in overcro#ded
slums #ith poor ventilation leading to disease and starvation.3.3 The &oor in Dickens’ works
Charles Dickens is one of the greatest Aictorian #riters that ever lived and he is greatly
admired for his aility to realistically depict the poor during the Industrial Revolution.
DickensK novels such as Hard Times' =liver T#ist' 2reat +5pectations and *leak House'
clearly illustrate the condition of the lo#er class 0u5taposed against the lavish lives of the
middle class and the aristocracy. Dickens uses fiction as an outlet for his enduring fascination
#ith the darker side of human nature. The treatment of crime y Dickens #as far more than
an authorial device< it #as a focal point for his deep concern #ith social prolems and played
a vital role in his attempt to understand these social ills. Dickens’ novels are not only aout
crime' ut they also raise 1uestions on the Poor a# system and the living conditions of the
#orking class.
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Charles Dickens depicts the plight of the poor and their treatment at the #orkhouses
particularly in =liver T#ist. =liver T#ist is orphaned at his irth and he immediately
ecomes a parish child. -t the age of eight' he is removed from the church and taken to the
poor house. The conditions at the #orkhouses #ere oviously unearale as evidenced y
=liver’s first e5perience;
“. . . on a rough hard ed' he soed himself to sleep.,hat a nole illustration of the tender la#s of this
favoured countryL They let the paupers go to sleepL" $(&
The description of the ed is a confirmation of the rigorousness of the poor houses as attested
y the poor house *oard of 2uardians; “The #orkhouse conditions should e as harsh and
less tolerale as those of a prison" $1td. y 2rant (@&. The passage is also ironic ecause
Dickens uses sarcasm y commending the “tender la#s" of a “favoured country'" yet' he is
criticising the government for its e5ploitation and treatment of the poor as marginal memers
of society.
:oreover' the passage evokes empathy in the reader as one visualises an innocent child
suffering at the hands of the cruel. In this #ay' Dickens fulfils his aim< to emotionally engage
the readers' so that they #ould e a#are of the intensity of the conditions at the #orkhouses.-dditionally' #orkhouse inmates #ere also malnutritioned;
“ =liver T#ist and his companions suffered the tortures of slo# starvation
for three months< at last they got so voracious and #ild #ith hunger' that one
oy' #ho #as tall for his age' and hadn’t een used to that sort of thing' $for
his father had kept a small cook’s shop'& hinted darkly to his companions that
unless he had another asin of gruel per diem' he #as afraid he should some
night eat the oy #ho slept ne5t to him' #ho happened to e a #eakly youth
of tender age." $(%&
=liver T#ist is chosen y his companions to ask for more food #hich indicates starvation and
lack of sufficient food to sustain the #orkhouse inmates. He is punished for this act and one
of the authorities is so horrified at the impertinence that he keeps saying that he #ill e hung.
Hunger #as prevalent in the #orkhouses as #ell as at the parish houses; “=liver T#ist’s
eighth irth!day found him a pale' thin child' some#hat diminutive in stature' and decidedly
small in circumference" $&. =liver’s stunted gro#th is oviously caused y under
nourishment. The po#erful pathos and visual imagery #hich Dickens uses in descriing
=liver is a masterful creation to intensify the gravity of the circumstances in #hich =liver
finds himself. This further sustantiates the harsh reality that the #orkhouse inmates #ere
starving. The starvation of the poor at the #orkhouses #as also a reflection of the hunger
encountered y the paupers outside the poor houses ecause after the passing of the Poor a#
-ct of (?%' they #ere no longer receiving any aid from the parishes unless they #ere
inmates. Thus' in (?%)' there #as an attack on the #orkhouse at 7tockportt and elo# is animage of the illustration in the ondon 6e#s;
Picture ; “-ttack on the ,orkhouse at 7tockportt"
7uch a stampede and scramle for food reflects a serious social prolem. - #hopping cro#d
of aout t#enty thousand unemployed people attacked the #orkhouse at 7tockportt in search
of food $Clapham /?/&. The protestors lamed the present state of the poor and the
unemployed on the state and the Church of +ngland and its *ishops $/?/&. 9rom 7tockportt' it
is said that the enormous pack turned out the #orkers from the hat B making mills and print
#orks and #ent on to attack the Gnion #orkhouse in 7ha# B Heath #here they stole si5
hundred and seventy t#o loaves of read and a large numer of copper coins $/?/&. 7uch an
incident serves to reinforce that Dickens’ presentation of social prolems #as not mere
fiction' ut an undeniale record of real life events.
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Charles Dickens does not only depict the harshness of the Poor a# -ct' ut also illustrates
the #orking conditions at the factories. The novel Hard Times is set in the industrial north of
+ngland and its apparent ovious thesis is its opposition to industrialisation and capitalism
$Pykett (8&. Dickens vividly descries the conditions at the Coketo#n factory;
“7tokers emerged from lo# underground door#ays into factory
yards' and sat on steps' and posts' and palings' #iping theirs#arthy visages' and contemplating coals. The #hole to#n seemed
to e frying in oil. There #as a stifling smell of hot oil every#here.
The steam!engines shone #ith it' the dresses of the Hands #ere
soiled #ith it' the mills throughout their many stories oo3ed and
trickled it. The atmosphere of those 9airy palaces #as like the reath
of the simoom; and their inhaitants' #asting #ith heat' toiled
languidly in the desert." $88& $Italics mine&
The description of the #orkers' #hose faces are lack #ith the oil and the effect of heat on
them' is an indication of the inade1uate facilities needed to create a conducive #orking
environment. This is a description of the factories in #hich the #orking class laoured each
day #here “they #ere deafened y the noise of the steam engines and the clattering machineryand stifled in air that not only #as laden #ith dust' ut in the asence of ventilation #as
heated to as high as eighty five degrees" #hich is revelatory of the physiological deilitation
$-ltick %&. This is further confirmed in Hard Times; “as killing airs and gases #ere ricked
in" $/E&.
-part from the unpleasant #orking conditions to #hich the poor #ere su0ected' they also
lived under s1ualid conditions. Therefore' the living 1uarters #ere as ad as the factories they
#orked in' esides' they #ere oth located in the same area to avoid long distances et#een
the houses and the factories. Ho#ever' such an arrangement #as inhuman ecause the houses
#ere too small and they #ere located #ithin the industrial site such that the area #as al#ays
cloudy #ith the smoke from the factories. The poor could not do anything to change their
plight ecause they #ere desperate for accommodation as #ell as employment and they had to
endure every sort of rutality to #hich they #ere su0ected.
In *leak House' the standards of living of the poor #ere also very appalling;
“. . . it #as one of a cluster of #retched hovels in a rick!field'
#ith pigsties close to the roken #indo#s' and miserale little
gardens efore the doors' gro#ing nothing ut stagnant pools.
Here and there' an old tu #as put to catch the droppings of
rain!#ater from a roof' or they #ere anked up #ith mud into
a little pond like a large dirt!pie." $(@E&
The intense description of the rick maker’s house is an illustration of the horrid lifestyle they
led #hich #as completely dissimilar and separate from that of the upper classes. The living1uarters are surrounded y filth and carelessness. Humans and pigs share the same living
1uarters' #hich is an indication that the social status of the poor #as no etter than that of
animals.
The #orkers are po#erless to protest against their condition ecause they are grateful and
content that they are employed and also have accommodation' #hich is proaly etter than
living in the streets and eing unemployed. The #orking class emraces the inhumanity and
e5ploitation' to #hich they are su0ected ecause they are a#are of the fact that they may lose
their 0os at the #ill of the employer as indicated y +ngels;
“He kno#s that every ree3e that lo#s' every #him
of his employer' every ad turn of trade may hurl him
ack into the fierce #hirlpool from #hich he hastemporarily saved himself' and in #hich it is hard and
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often impossile to keep his head aove #ater. He kno#s
that' though he may have the means of living today' it is
very uncertain #hether he shall tomorro#." $@&
Therefore' the precarious condition of the #orkers is inevitale ecause of the poverty that
leaves them vulnerale and desperate for any form of survival. Ho#ever' the vulneraility of
the factory employees #as to e removed #ith the introduction of 9actory -cts and tradeunions' as shall e discussed in the later chapters of this research.
-lthough the #orkers are defenceless' Dickens portrays in Hard Times' employees #ho are
conscious of their plight through the gathering y the Coketo#n #orkers;
“=H my friends' the do#n!trodden operatives of Coketo#nL
=h my friends and fello#!country' the slaves of an
iron!handed and a grinding despotismL =h my friends
and fello#!sufferers' and fello#!#orkmenL I tell you that
the hour is come' #hen #e must rally round one another
as =ne united po#er' and crumle into dust the oppressors
that too long have attened upon the plunder of our families'
upon the s#eat of our ro#s' upon the laour of our hands'upon the strength of our sine#s' upon the 2od!created
glorious rights of Humanity' and upon the holy
and eternal privileges of *rotherhoodL" $()&
The passage conforms to socialist #riting as it involves the #orkers ecoming conscious of
the oppression to #hich they are su0ected.
4u5taposed against an evil environment' the poor are presented as good people. 7tephen
*lackpool in Hard Times #as “a good po#er!loom #eaver' and a man of perfect integrity"
$/&. He has no choice ut to #ork #ithin a degrading system that has e5cluded him from his
employer and fello# #orkmates $>arl (//&. ike 7t. 7tephen in the *ile' 7tephen ecomes a
martyr to all that is ad in society and his refusal to e involved in Trade Gnionism is an
indication of his aility to choose in a society that limits personal choice $(//&. -lthough he is
a 0ust man' he is also a victim of industrialisation' and the “coal pit #hich had s#allo#ed
hundreds" $(//&. Due to his failure to either 0oin capitalism or fight industrialisation' 7tephen
is defeated y the society in #hich he lives.
The memers of 7leary’s circus are also poor yet good natured and innocent. The description
of 7leary’s community is loaded #ith “overtones of art and entertainment #hich appeal
directly to the heart" $>arl (/@&. Despite its physical dirtiness and ignorance' their #orld is
innocent and fulfilling ecause it is outside the industrialised and mechanistic life of
Coketo#n $(/@&. Its #orld is synonymous to children’s' in the sense that it is filled #ith
naivety. In addition' 4oe in 2reat +5pectations is also another e5ample of a poor person'
untainted y the vice that characterises the nineteenth century;“4oe #as a fair man' #ith curls of fla5en hair on each side
of his smooth face' and #ith eyes of such a very undecided
lue that they seemed to have someho# got mi5ed #ith
their o#n #hites. He #as a mild' good natured' s#eet!tempered'
easy going . . . $(E&
4oe is innocent and gentle like the memers of 7leary’s circus. 4oe’s lue eyes and the #hite
colour are symols of peace and purity therefore' his humility' gentility of the heart and
innocence is a reinforcement of the possiilities of peace' transparency and 0ustness in an
industrialised #orld.
The 0u5taposition of Dickens’ characters from the lo#er class against a corrupt and
industrialised #orld is an assertion that the #orld still has people #ho are not influenced ythe evil of industrialisation. 7ome people have managed to maintain the pre!industrial virtues
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instilled in human nature. Dickens’ use of pathos in presenting his characters evokes the
reader to e sympathetic and seek social 0ustice for the oppressed.
!"#T$R *+,R% hildren in -isery
4.1 hild 'aour
Child laour is the employment of children under the age of eighteen #orking under
conditions #hich harm them physically' mentally' morally and deprive them access toeducation $“Child aor; 9re1uently -sked Fuestions"&. -le5ander 2anse and Dain Chang'
descried child laour as the employment of children in industries $“Industrial Child aour
in *ritain"&. It #as also a rutal system ecause it increased illiteracy' poverty and also caused
diseased and crippled children $“Child aour"&. Child laour has een perceived as a product
of the Industrial Revolution in *ritain< massive industrial gro#th and productivity re1uired a
large amount of human laour and the cheapest availale manpo#er #as children #ho could
easily e underpaid. In +ngland' most of the child laourers #ere orphans or from poor
families assigned to the #orkhouses. Conse1uently' child laourers #ere su0ect to
e5ploitation' physical in0uries and even death. In (?@' Richard =astler vehemently #rote
against Child aour in The eeds :ercury;
“Thousands of our fello# creatures are at this very moment e5isting in a7tate of slavery more horrid than are the victims of that hellish system
Colonial 7lavery. These innocent creatures dra#l out unpitied their short
ut miserale e5istence. The very streets of our to#ns are every morning
#et #ith the tears of innocent victims at the accursed shrine of avarice'
#ho are compelled not y the cart #hip of the negro slave driver' ut y
the dread of the e1ually appalling thong or strap of the overlooker' to
hasten half B dressed' . . . to those maga3ines of *ritish infantile slavery'
the #orsted mills of the to#n of *radford." $1td. in “7tyal :ill" &
The cruelty of child laour paralleled slavery' a system #hich rutally treated its su0ects. It is
evident that children #ere e5ploited; “chained' elted' harnessed like dogs . . .lack' saturated
#ith #et' and more than half B naked' cra#ling upon their hands and knees' and dragging
their heavy loads ehind them" $Jancey %&.
During the Industrial Revolution' most of the child laourers #ere forced to #ork in factories
at the insistence of their parents or #orkhouse guardians $Hammond and Hammond (%&. -s
an industrially developing nation' *ritain needed an e5pansive amount of cheap human laour
despite the age and gender' in order to ring productivity and development to the country.
-lthough the *ritish economy needed a oost' it #as nevertheless inhumane to use child
laour as a source of economic gro#th. Richard =astler #as sympathetic to the factory
children’s victimi3ation; “Poor infantsL ye are indeed sacrificed at the shrine of avarice . . . .
$1td. y Driver %&. In addition' it is evident that childhood #as eing sacrificed to the
e5pansion of *ritain’s te5tile industries" $6ardinelli %@&. The Hammonds also claimed that“during the first phase of the Industrial Revolution the employment of children on a vast scale
ecame the most important social feature of +nglish life' and the prosperity of the +nglish
manufacturers #as ased upon Mchildren’sN helpless misery" $(%&.
During the Aictorian period' most of the lo#er class memers of the +nglish society #ere
marred y poverty such that children from the poor families #ere either forced' or felt oliged
to #ork in the factories in order to supplement the family’s income. =ne should also note that
“economic conditions forced poor children into #orking' sometimes as hard and long as their
parents" $Cody&. :oreover' the *ritish 2overnment also supported child laour as -ltick
conceded that the Parliament claimed; “. . . a child #as more useful to his family #orking"
$)%8&. :oreover' once the minors #ere employed at the factories' they #ere onded; “most
children egan #orking at seven years of age and #ere not allo#ed to leave the factory until
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they #ere t#enty B one. The children had to sign contracts called indentures that virtually
made them the property of the factory o#ner" $“7tyal :ill" %&
The emergence of the Industrial Revolution in *ritain rought the need for large laour pool
in order to increase industrial development in the nation. During the Aictorian period' children
#ere good sources of laour as many factory o#ners elieved that child laourers provided
them #ith cheap laour. :inors “#ere a significant part of the laour force ecause theycould e paid lo#er #ages" $Cody&. :ost of these children #ere orphans #ho #ere taken
from #orkhouses and they could e apprenticed y the factory o#ners; “To encourage factory
o#ners to take #orkhouse children' people like 2reg #ere paid et#een t#o pounds and four
pounds y the #orkhouse for each child they employed" $“7tyal :ill" /&. :oreover' it #as
1uite easy to underpay the children ecause they #ere “po#erless and #ould not revolt"
$Jancey &. 7use1uently' the factory o#ners’ e5penditure #as 1uite insignificant to the
revenue generated y the employees.
- minor #orking at cotton mills' usually as a “scavenger'" #hose task #as to rush and
s#eep under the spinners and the piecers' #as under the danger of eing run over or caught y
the #heels of the machines. In addition' the 0o of “chimney s#eeper" re1uired a child to
clim up the narro# tunnels of chimneys and s#eep out the trapped dust and smoke; “7o yourchimneys I s#eep and soot I sleep" $,illiam *lake&. It is evident from *lake’s poem “The
Chimney 7#eeper" that young children #ere employed to clear the soot from chimneys. ike
“scavengers"' “chimney s#eepers" had to e small enough to fit into confined space. 7ome of
the 0uveniles #ho #orked in mines #here they “#ere sent do#n to haul up loads of coal from
crammed passages $Jancey &' #ere under the risk of “cave B ins and e5plosions" $)&. It
#as 1uite appalling to some citi3ens #hen it #as reported that young children #ere employed
at mines; “- shocked +ngland learned' . . . that tiny children #orked side y side #ith adults
in the narro# corridors of coal mines< that five year old oys and girls #ere kept in solitary
darkness' t#elve hours a day' opening and shutting the doors upon #hich the miners’ safety
depended $-ltick %E&. *esides chimney s#eeping and mining' youngsters #ere also employed
in te5tile industries as sustantiated y 6ardinelli; “. . . the most important eing piecing
together roken threads' could e performed efficiently y children" $%%&. *elo# is a tale
sho#ing the numer of children employed in the te5tile industry from early nineteenth
century to late nineteenth century;
Tale (; CHIDR+6 +:P=J+D I6 7I> 9-CT=RI+7
Jear Percent Jear Percent
(?/ )8./ (?E ((.8
(?? )%.E (?( (%.
(?% (./ (?/ (/.(
(?/@ (E.? (?? (@.%
(?/E (%.% (??/ .%(?E( (.% (?8@ .@
7ource; Parliamentary Papers' Reports of the Inspector of 9actories' (?/!?<
Report of the Chief Inspector of 9actories' (??!8@. $+5tracted from 6ardinelli %%&.
The tale aove is a statistical presentation of the percentage of children employed in silk
factories from (?/ to (?8@. In the early nineteenth century' as illustrated y the tale aove'
)8./O of the laourers #ere children' #hich is more than a 1uarter of the numer of
laourers.
Ho#ever' to#ards the end of the century' it is evident that child laour declined due to
reforms that prohiited this rutal system' oviously due to criticisms of the rutal system y
authors like Charles Dickens.
The #orking conditions #hich the child laourers #ere forced to endure #ere 1uiteunearale. In the early eighteenth century to nineteenth century' minors as old as five or si5
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years of age “could e made to #ork t#elve to si5teen hours a day' si5 days a #eek" $Child
aour’&. Richard =astler also critici3ed the factory o#ners for su0ecting the 0uveniles to
long #orking hours; “. . . ye are compelled to #ork as long . . . . or the cold looded avarice of
your #orse than ararian masters may demandL . . . Je are doomed to laour from morning
to night for one #ho cares not ho# soon your #eak and tender frames are stretched to
reakingL" $1td. y Driver %&. - report pulished in (? stated; “...most factories #eredirty< lo# roofed< ill B vented< ill B drained< no conveniences for #ashing or dressing< no
contrivance for carrying off dust and other effluvia" $1td. in “7tyal :ill" (E&. :ost of the
employers neither took any precautions nor cared aout the dangers to #hich the children
#ere su0ected. 7ir -nthony Carlile' a doctor at ,estminster Hospital stated; “laour is
undergone in an atmosphere heated to a temperature of seventy to eighty degrees and
up#ards" and also pointed out that; “from a very hot room into damp cold air #ill inevitaly
produce inflammations of the lungs" $1td. in “7tyal :ill" (E&. =ther than long #orking hours'
child laourers #ere also su0ected to physical ause such as flogging $see -ppendi5 (
adapted from “7tyal :ill"&.
Poor #orking conditions often resulted in accidents #hich led to physical in0uries and even
death; “. . .#hy many people opposed child laour #as the numer of accidents #hich killedand maimed children. They argued that many of these accidents occurred ecause the children
#ere too tired and none of the machines had guards. Dr :ichael ,ar visited ever 7treet
7chool and found that forty seven of one hundred and si5 children had een in0ured y
machines in factories" $“7tyal :ill" (&. *elo# is a picture of some of the oys #ho
sustained disailities due to accidents;
Picture %; +5tracted from “7tyal :ill"
4ohn -len also reported that some minors lost their lims or sustained other fatal in0uries as a
result of gruesome accidents encountered at the factories #hen he #as intervie#ed y
:ichael 7adler and The House of Commons Committee on )( :ay (?); “I #as an eye
#itness of one. - child #as #orking #ool' that is' to prepare the #ool for the machine< ut
the strap caught him' as he #as hardly a#ake and it carried him into the machinery< and #e
found one lim in one place' one in another' and he #as cut to its< his #hole ody #ent in'
and #as mangled" $1td. in “7tyal :ill" ()&. -nother report of a young girl named :ary
Richards #as also stated in 4ohn *ro#n’s - :emoir of Roert *lincoe' #ho #as caught y a
shaft and crushed to death $1td. in “7tyal :ill ()' see -ppendi5 )&.
*esides in0uries' child laourers #ere also prone to lung diseases' ecause of the smoke and
dust they inhaled. The “dust from fla5 and the flue from cotton" inhaled y the 0uvenile
laourers led Dr. Charles -ston >ey to tell :ichael 7adler and The House of Commons
Committee on (E 4uly (?) that; “this impure air reathed for a great length of time must e
productive of disease' or e5ceedingly #eaken the ody" $1td. in “7tyal :ill" (E&. Reports of
“common occupational health risks and their principals causes’ #ere also made and these#ere; “eye inflammation from the use of tallo# and -rgand lamps' lung disease from
reathing into cotton dust in adly ventilated rooms' deafness from long e5posure to noisy
machinery' cancer of the groin from the oil on the mule spindles' cancer of the mouth. . . .
$“7tyal :ill" )%&.
In addition' 4ohn Reed #ho #as a minor employee at -rk#right’s Cromford’s factory stated;
“I gradually ecame a cripple' till at the age of nineteen I #as unale to stand at the machine'
and I #as oliged to give up. The total amount of my earnings #as aout (@ shillings' and
for this sum I have een made a miserale cripple as you can see' and cast off y those #ho
reaped the enefit of my laour' #ithout a single penny" $“7tyal :ill" (&. 7uch a testimony
reflects the parado5 of the capitalist system #hich simultaneously empo#ered the middle
class society yet destroyed the lives of many children.
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Child laour #as indeed a rutal and gruesome system #hich roed 0uveniles of their
childhood' health and even their lives. Reports of the unpleasant encounters of accidents'
physical ause and e5ploitation leave the reader sympathetic to#ards children #ho lived in
nineteenth century *ritain. :oreover' most of these children #ere also orphans and also
memers of the lo#er class' therefore they #ere economically desperate and they #ere forced
to endure any means of survival' even if it meant accepting maltreatment. Ho#ever' #ith thenumerous complaints aout child laour and the #ide readership' particularly of novels y
Charles Dickens' #ho vehemently denounced child laour' sympathetic memers of the
Aictorian society implemented ne# reforms against child laour and other forms of child
e5ploitation.
4.2 De&rivation o) education to the &oor child
+ducation is vital for every human eing as they go through the stages of development. +very
minor has a mandatory right to receive education as this fosters mental and psychological
child development as stated y 4oseph 9. >ett; “7chooling then' #ould ultimately introduce
into the family #age economy a po#erful ne# element in the sociali3ation of children B for
schooling defined and regulated childhood and youth as discrete' se1uenced phases of
preparation for adulthood" $1td. in assonde ?%@&. In Aictorian +ngland' it #as elieved that“the training to e otained in primary and grammar school #as thought to inhere as much in
attitude as in the ac1uisition of skills fundamental to future employment" $?%@&.
Ho#ever' not every child has the opportunity to go to school or receive at least some form of
education. Poverty is one of the ma0or causes that deprives children the right to education. In
the nineteenth century in *ritain' there #as a sustantial numer of children from poor
families ecause the fees #ere too e5pensive. 9or e5ample' there #as a school #hich had
“only eighteen scholars' half of #hom came from outside Hernhill. The fees #ere Ed. a #eek
for reading< (s. /d. a 1uarter $or aout (s a #eek& for reading' #riting and arithmetic" $Reay
(@(&. :oreover' “fe# laouring families chose $or #ere ale& to pay for the education of their
children; of fifty Dunkirk families intervie#ed y iardet only ten paid for the schooling of
their young" $1td. in Reay (@&.
:oreover' the education system offered to the poor #as 1uite inefficient as illustrated y
Charles Dickens in 2reat +5pectations;
“:r ,opsle’s great aunt kept an evening school in the village<
that is to say' she #as a ridiculous old #oman of limited
means and unlimited infirmity' #ho used to go to sleep from
si5 to seven' in the society of youth #ho paid t#opence per #eek
each . . . . . and :r ,opsle had the room upstairs' #here #e
students used to overhear him reading aloud in a most dignified
and terrific manner. . . ." $%8&
The parody of :r ,opsle’s great aunt’s evening school is a satire of the education providedfor the lo#er class. Pip also comments that he learnt the alphaet from *iddy and neither from
:r ,opsle nor his aunt #hich indicates that neither of them #ere doing their duty of
educating the keen learners.
-nother reason many children #ere unschooled is that the lo#er class generally did not
ackno#ledge the importance of education; “To many #orking class parents' ho#ever'
schooling appeared as a kind of idleness incongruous #ith the organi3ing principle of family
life in the nineteenth century . . ." $:odell et al 1td. in assonde ?%@&. The Aictorian society'
particularly the lo#er class memers' elieved that “education #as not needed" $-ltick )%8&.
:oreover' “There #as a feeling that school education' ook learning' did little to mould a
potential agricultural laourer. 7chool might e a udding agriculturalist’s general
education'’ ut laour #as his special education’" $Reay (@%&. It is 1uite evident that most ofthe children #ere deprived of education ecause their parents did not perceive schooling as a
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priority' ut rather preferred that their offspring ecame laourers. - survey #as carried out
in 2lasgo# #hich revealed that “most oy laourers and learners $as opposed to ound
apprentices& passed through at least si5 0os et#een fourteen and t#enty one' more often the
figure #as t#elve 0os' #hile figures of t#enty to thirty #ere not unheard of" $Childs 8(&.
:ost youth during their adolescent years had een employed more than five years' #hich
indicates that most of these 0uveniles never got the chance to attend school as they spent mostof their time moving from one occupation to another.
-lthough some children #ent to school' their attendance al#ays fluctuated as the oys #ould
leave the classroom to earn money #hile the girls #ould do domestic chores. The nineteenth
century *ritish child #as deprived of education ecause he or she #as “removed #henever a
0o of #ork can e found for him. . ." $iardet 1td. y Reay (@&. This caused prolems such
as forgetting #hat he or she learnt efore #hile fe# children had more than t#o or three years
of schooling and “in (?%@ only )@O of the youth population had any schooling at all" $Cody&.
In the nineteenth century' there #as a minimum numer of children #ho #ent to school
ecause they elieved that “#orking earned them money #hile school earned them nothing"
$-ltick )/@&. =ut of forty t#o laourers’ children under the age of fourteen #ho attended
school' only si5 could read and #rite' thirteen could read fluently #hile nine read very littleand the rest could not read at all $Reay ((&. This #as a survey from the Hernhill census in
(?( calculated from the 7chool og *ook in the nineteenth century. 7uch statistics reveal the
level of literacy #ithin the children of the lo#er class memers of society #ho #ere deprived
of education due to poverty and insufficient funds to pay the school fees.
6evertheless' lack of education often perpetuates poverty #ithin the circle of the socially
disadvantaged. - poor child #ill never live a life etter than his or her parents if one is
deprived of formal education. :oreover' it is also difficult to e elevated in society if illiterate
and uneducated; “Children #ithout proper education #ill dim the future of their country. -nd
as for children themselves' they #ill suffer from poverty and ill condition of the society after
they gro# up #ithout any formal education. .... #ithout proper education' the poor cannot
change their social status and #ill e the less privileged group" $4iang )(&. Due to deprivation
of education' most of the socially disadvantaged people are conse1uently forced to e
involved in crime and prostitution as means of survival as evidenced y =liver T#ist’s
criminal friends' 9agin and his cre#.
In the early nineteenth century' education #as not accessile to the poor until the later half of
the century #hen the +ducation -cts #here implemented. :ost of the pauper children #here
residents at the #orkhouse' #here they did not receive formal education like the middle class
offspring. The only education that the poor child received #as either that of eing eaten into
sumission y the #orkhouse authorities or employers; “In =liver T#ist' the reproach on
children’s education is e5tremely apparent. =liver' #hen raised y :rs. :ann almost receives
no education at all. ,hat he kno#s is only to oey “the elder lady" if =liver hopes to escapefrom her cruel hands and sticks’ " $4iang )(&.
The education that the paupers received #as that of apprenticeship only' meaning that they
#ere taught aout the trade in #hich they #ere involved such as chimney s#eeping'
lacksmith or a locksmith' 0ust as Pip #as to e apprenticed to 4oe. The Aictorian society laid
a clear cut oundary et#een the paupers and the children from middle class families #ho
attended schools' and had governesses and tutors at home. 9urthermore' in most parts of
+ngland there #as no state!funded schooling availale' especially for the poor' resulting in
many of the lo#er class children not receiving any formal education or they attended evening
school #hich #as often not properly administered.
+ducation is important for psychological and even economic gro#th in every individual.
Gnfortunately' the poor are constantly caught in the #e of poverty ecause of illiteracy#hich is caused y lack of proper and formal education. The poor child cannot live a etter
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life than his or her parents if deprived of education' an opportunity to step out of the frontier
3one that separates the poor and the rich.
4.3 $/a0ination o) the &li(ht o) children in Dickens’ novels
Charles Dickens is a #riter #ho is very sympathetic to#ards his child characters. He is
personally a#are of the e5ploitation to #hich the children are su0ected ecause of his o#n
history of #orkhouse incarceration' #hich parallels =liver’s #orkhouse e5perience $4ames?8&. This e5plains the pathos in his novels' surrounding the uneducated and deprived orphans
#hose loss of childhood is echoed through their physical e5ploitation. Dickens’ novels
ultimately petition society to protect these assailed 0uveniles. Ho#ever' the Aictorian society
is parado5ical ecause it perceived childhood as essential' yet most of its 0uveniles are not
given the chance to safely e5perience gro#th and transition into adulthood. 2orham states; “. .
. childhood had great symolic importance' ut many Aictorians suffered from an uncertainty
aout the nature of childhood and the proper relationship of children to the structure of the
family and the #ider society. In the late B Aictorian period' many people #ho #ere concerned
aout the #elfare of children also found themselves uncertain aout ho# the oundaries of
childhood should e defined" $//&.
Dickens’ characters are representations of the actual #orld as Rosenerg remarks; “. . . the est Dickens’ characters are e5amples of verisimilitudinous representation" $(%&. Dickens
characters are not only representations of the #orld' ut also reflections of e5istent eings' “. .
. . and assumed' y virtually all readers' to e representations of people" $(%?&. Therefore' his
child characters represent real children #ith actual e5periences and ackgrounds such as
poverty' orphanage' neglect and deprivation of education.
9irstly' Dickens’ child characters are usually orphaned or their parentage is unclear' for
e5ample Pip $2reat +5pectations&' +sther $*leak House&' =liver $=liver T#ist&' +stella $2reat
+5pectations& and 7issy 4upe $Hard Times&. +stella and +sther are initially introduced as
orphans' ut the reader later discovers that they are actually aandoned children as is 7issy
4upe. -ll the three characters are adopted' for e5ample +stella is adopted y :iss Havisham'
#hile +sther is adopted y 4ohn 4arndyce and lastly' 7issy is adopted y :r Thomas
2radgrind. The three young ladies have a common ackground' that of lo#er class parentage'
yet they are adopted y middle class guardians' therefore they eventually ecome memers of
that class. Charles Dickens’ seems to suggest that a lo#er class memer can never elong to
the middle class unless the elevation into that upper class is generated y the middle class.
Dickens’ elief is that the lo#er class’ dependency on the middle class is inevitale. To a
larger e5tent' he is also suggesting that it is the middle class #ho can change the plight of the
lo#er class and' therefore it is their responsiility to eradicate poverty.
=rphans are usually vulnerale and susceptile to e5ploitation and neglect' #hich is the case
#ith 4o' the urchin in *leak House. Gnlike other Dickens’ characters' 4o is the most pathetic
child ecause of the a0ect poverty in #hich he lives and his early death from small po5makes his character even more pitiale. 4o is dehumani3ed almost to the point of non B
e5istence. -s a street child' 4o is a lonely eggar #ho has een deprived of oth paternal and
maternal love and the only other person #ith #hom he shares a connection is 6emo' #ho also
dies. The dysfunctionality of 4o’s life as an orphan reflects the impaired lives of the people
around him' #hich further translates into the dis0ointed social relationships of the nineteenth
century Aictorian society. Ho#ever' the lack of a proper family structure in Dickens’
characters sho#s the fragmentation of the nineteenth century family. The degeneration of the
family is a symol of the disintegration of the nineteenth century society' an issues greatly
depicted y #riters such as T.7. +liot in his poems “The Hollo# :en" and “The ,aste
and." The isolation of Dickens’ child characters presents the reader #ith a yearning for
family and social reform $Pykett (%%&.
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4o’s e5perience contrasts #ith Pip from 2reat +5pectations #ho lives #ith his sister and her
husand. -lthough' Pip receives familial care from his sister' she physically e5ploits him and
he lives in perpetual fear of her;
:y sister' :rs. 4oe' thro#ing the door #ide open' and finding
an ostruction ehind it' immediately divined the cause' and applied
Tickler to its further investigation. 7he concluded y thro#ing me B Ioften served as a connuial missile. . . . $(&.
His sister’s physical ause highlights the vulneraility of children #ho lack proper care and
protection. Gltimately' he is emotionally affected ecause he feels like a urden to his sister'
#hose presence appals him' yet she should e his surrogate mother; “I think my sister must
have had some general idea that I #as a young offender #hom an -ccoucheur Policeman had
taken up $on my irthday& and delivered over to her' to e dealt #ith according to the
outraged ma0esty of the la#. I #as al#ays treated on eing in opposition to the dictates of
reason' religion and morality. . ." $2reat +5pectations )8&. :oreover' Pip’s e5perience in a
dysfunctional family unit also resemles the Pockets family #hose children #ere “tumling
up" due to lack of proper maternal care from their mother :rs. Pocket' #ho had surrendered
the responsiility of caring for her children to servants and child minders.Through the creation of Pip and 4o as orphaned children' Dickens portrays the dynamics and
parado5es e5perienced y oth characters. 4o’s life is characterised y a #orld of
marginalised e5istence' in an isolating society. Pip inhaits an ineffectual family unit #ith a
violent sister and a #eak rother in B la# #ho fails to nurture and protect him. Their
ehaviour parallels the e5ploitative nature of the #orkhouse authorities #ho #ere instructed
to care for the orphans under their authority. :oreover' the parish clerk' :r. ,opsle in 2reat
+5pectations says; “,hat is detestale in a pig' is more detestale in a oy" $&' #hich also
reaffirms the harsh mentality of the church authorities #ho strongly elieved that young
children #ere not to e treated etter than animals. If :r. ,opsle thinks a young oy is more
unearale than a pig' then his statement accounts for the actions of the #orkhouse oard of
guardians.
9urthermore' Dickens’ traumatic e5periences are immensely echoed in =liver #ho is stripped
of his ne# clothes ought y :r. *ro#nlo#' “. . . =liver in 9agin’s kitchen' stripped of his
good’ clothes' deprived of *ro#nlo#’s ooks' and laughed at y the urchins...." $4ames ?8&.
This incident replicates Dickens’ o#n e5perience #hich; “. . . imaginatively emodies the
humiliation of the sensitive middle class Dickens amid the #orking B class fello# B
employees' one of #hom #as indeed called 9agin. =n the other hand' fear of this environment
#as matched y his hatred of middle class parents' #ho had so promptly aandoned him into
it" $4ames ?8&. =liver T#ist also mirrors Charles Dickens ecause they oth elong to the
middle class' ut are aandoned into a #orkhouse. -lthough at this point the reader is not
a#are of =liver’s memership in the middle class' his innocence and failure to 0oin a gang ofcriminals is synchronous to Dickens’ e5posure to the #orking class at the factory as a young
oy of t#elve.
The vulneraility of children and their su0ection to child laour is further reflected in =liver
T#ist #hen the man in the #hite #aistcoat #ants to sell =liver to 2amfield as a chimney
s#eeper. Instead' =liver is later sold to :r. 7o#ererry the undertaker and assigned the role
of a funeral mute. The Industrial Revolution #as a period in #hich many children #ere
#orking at the #orkhouses due to poverty like the orphaned =liver #ho #as assigned to pick
oakum at si5 every morning $(&. ,hen =liver is almost sold to 2amfield as a chimney
s#eeper' one is reminded of ,illiam *lake’s poem “The Chimney 7#eep" also echoes the
effects of orphanage and child laour on 0uveniles. +ighteenth century poets such as ,illiam
*lake also critici3ed child laour through his poem;“-nd ecause I am happy and dance and sing'
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They think they have done me no in0ury'
-nd are gone to praise 2od and His priest and king'
,ho made up a heaven of our misery." $“The Chimney 7#eeper"&
The poem is aout a little child protesting against e5ploitation and child laour. Dickens’
sympathy to#ards child laourers is also noted in *lake’s use of the child’s voice to e5press
discontent #ith harsh treatment. 6ot only does Dickens portray young characters #ho are su0ected to child laour' he also
rings to the foreground that many children #ere deprived of education due to their social
status. 4o' Pip and =liver are aandoned children #ho receive no education in their early
stages of life. 4o is a street urchin throughout the course of his life< thus his life does not
elevate to a level #hich transcends poverty. 4o is uneducated;
“It must e a strange state to e like 4oL . . . To see people read'
and to see people #rite' and to see the postmen deliver letters'
and not to have the least idea of all the language!to e' to
every scrap of it' stone lind and dumL" $))@&
Through 4o' Dickens suggests that a poor child deprived of education #ill never rise in
society< in actual fact< his or her life #ill e centred on material need and struggle forsurvival. The lindness" and “dumness" of 4oe is representative of his lack of
psychological gro#th as a character.
=n the other hand' Pip is fortunate enough to receive an opportunity to e educated. Pip is
raised y his sister and her husand 4oe #ho later apprentices the minor into the trade of
lacksmith< ho#ever' it is at this point that Pip’s life takes a successful turn. He is informed
that a enefactor is sponsoring his education to ecome a gentleman. It is 1uite apparent from
this turn of events that unlike the children from the poor families' those from the middle class
are educated to ecome young gentleman and ladies. Pip’s life shifts up#ard from lo#er class
to middle class. It is through the formal education that he receives in ondon that he ecomes
a gentleman' #hich is reflected through his manners. Pip’s access to education and resultant
financial success illustrates that in order for one to defeat poverty' one has to e educated<
thus' #ithout education' one #ill al#ays e poor. Ho#ever' the parado5 lies in that Pip’s
enefactor' :ag#itch' is not a memer of the middle class' nor is he a gentleman. He is an
ordinary man #ith manners and the speech of an uncivilised lo#er class memer' ut #ho has
managed financial success to support Pip.
Pip’s endo#ment y :ag#itch is an antithesis to =liver’s adoption y :r. *ro#nlo#. ,here
Pip is adopted y the convict :ag#itch' =liver is rescued y a middle class memer and
ultimately it is later revealed that =liver’s father #as' in fact' a #ealthy man. It is assumed
that =liver finally received education after his adoption y :r. *ro#nlo#. Dickens seems to
suggest that the only #ay that one can access education and escape poverty is through the
generosity of the middle class memers. =n the other hand' Dickens also proves that one doesnot need to e a middle class memer to possess a munificent heart' and this is sho#n y
:ag#itch #ho paves a #ay for Pip to ecome a gentleman.
Jet' Dickens also challenges the drudgery of education through the parody of Thomas
2radgrind #ho continuously demands facts from the school children. His rigid system of
education has eliminated the innocence in his children and they have ecome like “remote
controlled roots" #ho only act or think according to their father’s desire. 2radgrind’s system
of education is also a reflection of the oppression of children in institutions such as the
#orkhouses and factories< hence' Dickens has created a parallelism of the t#o institutions<
education and industry. :r. 2radgrind’s system of education inhiits the limitation of
childhood impulses and promotes that children “must e 0udged y adult standards< and that
feelings do not e5ist as kno#ledge and must therefore e ignored' or' etter yet' not felt" $>arl(/)&. :r. 2radgrind’s philosophy on education is destructive ecause it e5ploits the child'
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#hich is representative of the “in0ustice of society to its individual memers' the in0ustice of
government to its su0ects and finally' the in0ustice of an economic system to its #orkers"
$(/)&.
Dickens’ ama3ing art of character creation can only e e5plained through his desire to reform
a society that su0ugates the 0uveniles. Children are susceptile to e5ploitation as they are
very defenceless eings and Dickens successfully portrays the ause of children in nineteenthcentury *ritain and evokes reader sympathy to their plight.
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