View
214
Download
0
Category
Tags:
Preview:
Citation preview
Chapter 7
Human Memory
Table of Contents
Figure 7.1 – Nickerson & Adams (1979) – Which is the correct penny?
Table of Contents
Human Memory: Basic Questions
How does information get into memory? How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory? Memory timeline
– Short term – recent?– Long term – remote?– Operational definitions
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory
The role of attention Focusing awareness Selective attention = selection of input
– Filtering: early or late? – F 7.3
Multitasking – issues of driving performance and cell phone use – study by Strayer and Johnson (2001) – F 7.4
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Figure 7.4 Divided attention and driving performance – Strayer & Johnson (2001)
Table of Contents
Levels of Processing: Craik and Lockhart (1972)
Incoming information processed at different levels: Figure 7.5
Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes Encoding levels:
– Structural = shallow– Phonemic = intermediate– Semantic = deep– Study results – Figure 7.6
Table of Contents
XX 7.5
Table of ContentsFigure 7.6 – Retention at three levels of processing – Craik & Tulving (1975)
Table of Contents
Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory
Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding– Thinking of examples
Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered– Easier for concrete objects: Dual-
coding theory – Figure 7.7, Paivio et al. (1968) >>>>>>>>>>>
Self-Referent Encoding– Making information personally
meaningful Figure 7.7
Table of Contents
Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory Analogy: information storage in computers ~
information storage in human memory Information-processing theories – Atkinson &
Shiffrin (1977)– Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
• Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
xx 7.8
Table of Contents
Information-Processing Model of Memory
Computer as a model for our memory Three types of memory
– Sensory memory– Short-term memory (STM)– Long-term memory (LTM)
• Can hold vast quantities of information for many years
Table of Contents
Information-Processing Model of Memory
Short-termmemoryStimulus
Sensorymemory
Long-termmemory
Attention Encoding
Retrieval
Forgetting ForgettingForgetting
Table of Contents
Sensory Memory
Stores all the stimuli that register on the senses
Lasts up to three seconds Two types
– Iconic memory• Visual• Usually lasts about 0.3 seconds• Sperling’s tests (1960s)
– Echoic memory (we’ll come back to this)
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Table of Contents
Sensory Memory
We will take a closer look at the Sperling experiment Figure 7.9 summarizes his experiment
Table of Contents
Sperling’s Experiment Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 seconds
– Report as many letters as possible
Subjects recalled only half of the letters Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time
to view entire matrix? – No
How did Sperling know this?
Table of Contents
Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Table of Contents
Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Table of Contents
Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Table of Contents
Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Table of Contents
Sperling’s Experiment Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately
after matrix disappeared– Tone signaled 1 row to report
– Recall was almost perfect
Memory for images fades after 1/3 seconds or so, making report of entire display hard to do
High
Medium
Low
Table of Contents
xx 7.9
Table of Contents
We are going to try it on the next slide….Are you ready
5
4
3
2
1
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
What was the last row…..
Table of Contents
Sensory Memory
Echoic memory– Sensory memory for auditory input that lasts only 2
to 3 seconds
Why do we need sensory memory?
Table of Contents
Short Term Memory (STM)
Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2
Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal– Peterson and Peterson (1959) – F 7.10– Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or
thinking about the information
Table of Contents
Memorize the following list of numbers:
1 8 1 2 1 9 4 1 1 7 7 6 1 4 9 2 2 0 0 1
Table of Contents
Write down the numbers in order.
Table of Contents
Now, try again…
1812 1941 1776 1492 2001
Table of Contents
Short-term Memory Limited capacity
– Can hold 7 ± 2 items for about 20 seconds– Maintenance rehearsal
• The use of repetition to keep info in short-term memory
CHUNK– Meaningful unit of information– Without rehearsal, we remember 4 ± 2 chunks– With rehearsal, we remember 7 ± 2 chunks– Ericsson & Chase (1982)
89319443492502157841668506120948888568772731418610546297480129497496592280
Table of Contents
xx 7.9
Table of Contents
Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory”
STM not limited to phonemic encoding Loss of information not only due to decay Baddeley (2001) – 4 components of working memory
– F 7.11– Phonological rehearsal loop– Visuospatial sketchpad– Executive control system– Episodic buffer
Table of Contents
xxx 7.11
Table of Contents
Long-term Memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
AttentionLong-term
memory
Retrieval
Once information passes from sensory to short-term memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory
Encoding
Table of Contents
Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity
Penfield’s neural stimulation – p. 284 – data was reinterpreted
Permanent storage?– Flashbulb memories– Brown and Kulick
(1977) – study of assassinations
– Talarico & Rubin (2003) – page 285-286 data in F 7.12 – 9-11 study
– Recall through hypnosis
Debate: are STM and LTM really different?– Phonemic vs.
Semantic encoding– Decay vs.
Interference based forgetting
Figure 7.12
Table of Contents
Long-term memory - Encoding
Elaborative rehearsal– A technique for transferring information into long-term
memory by thinking about it in a deeper way Levels of processing
– Semantic is more effective than visual or acoustic processing
– Craik & Tulving (1975) Self-referent effect
– By viewing new info as relevant to the self, we consider that info more fully and are better able to recall it
Table of Contents
Long-term memory
Procedural (Implicit)– Memories of behaviors, skills, etc.
• Demonstrated through behavior
Declarative (Explicit)– Memories of facts
• Episodic – personal experiences tied to places & time• Semantic – general knowledge
– Semantic network– Figure 7.14
Table of Contents
How is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory? Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies – F 7.13
Schemas and Scripts – Shank & Abelson (1977)
Semantic Networks – Collins & Loftus (1975) – Figure 7.14
Connectionist Networks and PDP Models – McClelland and colleagues - pattern of activity – neuron based model
Table of ContentsFigure 7.14 A semantic network..
Table of Contents
Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
Parallel distributed processing model– Assumes cognitive processes depend on patterns of
activation in highly interconnected networks
Table of Contents
Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval– Retrieval cues – Brown & McNeil (1966) study – resolve
block 57% of the time with first letter of failed to retrieve word
Recalling an event– Context cues – Godden & Baddeley (1975) – context-
dependent memory study with scuba divers– Bartlett memory research – War of the Ghosts – F 7.15
Reconstructing memories – Loftus studies– Loftus & Palmer (1974) – Figure 7.16 – I: smashed (40.8); collided
(39.3); bumped (38.1); hit (34.0); contacted (31.8) II: smashed (32%) hit (14%) control (12%) (broken glass?)
– Misinformation effect• Source monitoring, reality monitoring • cryptomnesia
Table of Contents
Retrieval
Retrieval– Process that controls flow of information from
long-term to working memory store Explicit memory
– The types of memory elicited through the conscious retrieval of recollections in response to direct questions
Implicit memory– A nonconscious recollection of a prior experience
that is revealed indirectly, by its effects on performance
Table of Contents
Retrieval – Explicit Memory
Free-recall test– A type of explicit memory task in which a person must
reproduce information without the benefit of external cues Recognition task
– A form of explicit memory retrieval in which items are presented to a person who must determine if they were previously encountered
Retrieval failure– Tip-of-the-tongue (Brown & McNeill)
Table of Contents
Forgetting: When Memory Lapses
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve – F 7.17 Retention – the proportion of material retained –
F 7.18– Recall – Recognition – Relearning
Hill of reminiscence – time frame of remembering
Table of Contents
Seven Sins of Memory – Daniel L. Schacter Transience – loss of
memory over time Absent Mindedness –
breakdown of interface between attention & memory
Blocking – thwarted search for information to retrieve
Bias – influence of current knowledge and belief on how we remember our past
Misattribution – assigning a memory to the wrong source
Suggestibility – memories implanted as a result of leading questions, comments or suggestions when a person is trying to recall a past experience
Persistence – repeated recall of disturbing information or events that one may want to forget
Table of Contents
xxx 7.17
Table of Contents
xxx 7.18
Table of Contents
Why Do We Forget? Ineffective Encoding Decay theory Interference theory
– Type of material– Figure 7.19– Proactive– Retroactive– Figure 7.20
Figure 7.19
Table of Contents
Forgetting
If we remembered everything, we should on most occasions be as ill off as if we remembered nothing.
William James Lack of encoding
– Often, we don’t even encode the features necessary to ‘remember’ an object/event
Decay– Memory traces erode with the passage of time– No longer a valid theory of forgetting– Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924)
Table of Contents
Interference theory
Forgetting is a result of some memories interfering with others– Proactive interference
• Old memories interfere with ability to remember new memories
– Retroactive interference• New memories interfere with ability to
remember old memories– Interference is stronger when material is
similar
Table of Contents
xxx 7.20
Table of Contents
Retrieval Failure
Encoding Specificity Transfer-Appropriate Processing Repression and the memory wards - F 7.21
– Authenticity of repressed memories?– Memory illusions– Controversy
False memories – Roediger & McDermott (1995) procedure – Figure 7.22
Loftus & Pickrell’s (1995) lost-in-the-mall study
Table of Contents
Forgetting
Repression– There are times when we are unable to
remember painful past events– While there is no laboratory evidence
for this, case studies suggest that memories can be repressed for a number of years andrecovered in therapy
Table of Contents
xxx 7.22
Table of Contents
The Physiology of Memory
Biochemistry– Alteration in synaptic transmission
• Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems• Protein synthesis
Neural circuitry– Localized neural circuits
• Reusable pathways in the brain• Long-term potentiation – changes in postsynaptic neuron
Anatomy– Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia – F 7.24– case of H.M. – resection in 1953– http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7584970– http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/us/05hm.html – Clive Wearing
• Figure 7.23 - Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal Cortex, Hippocampus,• Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum
Table of Contents
xxx 7.23
Table of Contents
xxx 7.24
Table of Contents
Are There Multiple Memory Systems?
Figure 7.25 Implicit vs. Explicit Declarative vs. Procedural Semantic vs. Episodic Prospective vs. Retrospective – Figure 7.26
Table of Contents
xxx 7.25
Table of Contents
Figure 7.26 – Retrospective versus prospective memory
Table of Contents
Improving Everyday Memory Engage in adequate rehearsal – overlearning Testing effect – F 7.27 – Roediger & Karpick
(2006) Serial position effects – F 7.28 Distribute practice and minimize interference -
F 7.29 Emphasize deep processing and transfer-
appropriate processing Organize information Encoding specificity – vary location of studying Use verbal mnemonics – narrative stories –
Figure 7.30 >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Use visual mnemonics – method of Loci –
Figure 7.31 Akira Haraguchi, 60, needed more than
(10/3/2006) 16 hours to recite pi (π) to 100,000 decimal places, breaking his personal best of 83,431 digits set in 2005.
Table of Contents
Improving Memory
Practice time– Distribute your studying over time
Depth of processing– Spend ‘quality’ time studying
Verbal mnemonics– Use rhyming or acronyms to reduce the amount of
info to be stored
Table of Contents
Improving Memory Method of loci
– Items to be recalled are mentally placed in familiar locations
Interference– Study right before sleeping & review all the material
right before the exam– Allocate an uninterrupted chunk of time to one
course Context reinstatement
– Try to study in the same environment & mood in which you will be taking the exam
Table of Contents
Eyewitness Accounts
Use of Eyewitness in court cases – Cutler & Penrod (1995), Loftus (1993)
What did Jennifer See? Post information distortion Source confusion Hindsight bias Overconfidence
Table of Contents
Your Homework
Read the Chapter Do the quizzes online Make sure you are doing you “Dream Blog”
– 5 dreams with interpretations Work on your “Dream Collage” Chapter 7 Vocab Cards Remember that Chapter 7 Test is on Monday(1st
period) and Tuesday(4th period). If you have questions, please post them on
– ORHS AP Psychology
Recommended