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Runway
Runway at Gibraltar Airport
FAA airport diagram at O'Hare International Airport. From left to right, runways
14/32 slant down, runways 4/22 slant up, runways 9/27 and 10/28 are horizontal
Runway ofChennai International Airport, Chennai, India
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Helsinki-Vantaa Airport, runway 33
On final approach to runway 24 at DCAE Cosford.
A runway (RWY) is a strip of land at an airport on which aircraft can take offand
land and forms part of the maneuvering area. Runways may be a man-made surface
(often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt
gravel, ice, orsalt).
By extension, the term has also come to mean any long, flat, straight area, such as
that used in fashion shows.
Orientation and dimensions
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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2009)
Runways are given a number between 01 and 36. This indicates the runway's
heading: A runway with the number 36 points to the north (360), runway 09 points
east (90), runway 18 is south (180), and runway 27 points west (270). Thus, the
runway number is one tenth of the runway centerline's magnetic azimuth, measured
clockwise from the magnetic declination.
A runway can normally be used in two directions, which means the runway may
have two names: "runway 33" and "runway 15". The two numbers always differ by
18 (= 180).
El Dorado International Airport, Runway 31R/13L
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Runways in North America that lie within the Northern Domestic Airspace are,
because of the magnetic North Pole, usually numbered according to true north.[1]
For clarity in radio communications, each digit is pronounced individually: runway
three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in "runway zero six" or
"runway zero one left", is included for International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) and some United States military airports (such as Edwards Air Force Base)
However in the United States at most civil aviation airports, the leading zero is
often dropped: "runway niner" (the number nine is pronounced "niner" to avoid
confusion with the spoken number "five") or "runway four right". This also includes
some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield. This American anomaly may
lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in
other countries. It is very common in a country such as Canada for a controller to
clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, Runway 04, and the pilot read
back the clearance as Runway 4. In flight simulation programs those of American
origin might apply U.S. usage to airports around the world. For example Runway
05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05.
Cotswold Airport in Gloucestershire, England. The runway is 08
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Runway sign at Madrid-Barajas Airport, Spain.
Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on
the Earth's surface and the magnetic bearing will change. Depending on the airport
location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change
the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the
nearest 10 degrees, this will affect some runways more than others. For example, if
the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway
23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, the Runway
would still be Runway 23. If on the other hand the original magnetic heading was
226 (Runway 23), and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway
should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is quite slow, runway
designation changes are uncommon, and not welcomed, as they require an
accompanying change in aeronautical charts and descriptive documents. When
runway designations do change, especially at major airports, it is often changed
overnight as taxiway signs need to be changed and the huge numbers at each end of
the runway need to be repainted to the new runway designators. In July 2009 for
example, London Stansted Airport in the United Kingdom changed its runway
designations from 05/23 to 04/22 overnight.
If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways),
each runway is identified by appending Left (L), Center (C) and Right (R) to the
number for example, Runways One Five Left (15L), One Five Center (15C), and
One Five Right (15R). Runway Zero Three Left (03L) becomes Runway Two One
Right (21R) when used in the opposite direction (derived from adding 18 to the
original number for the 180 degrees when approaching from the opposite direction).
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At large airports with more than three parallel runways (for example, at Los
Angeles, Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta, Denver,
and Dallas-Fort Worth), some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid
the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example
in Los Angeles, this system results in Runways 6L, 6R, 7L, and 7R, even though all
four runways are exactly parallel (approximately 69 degrees). At Dallas-Fort
Worth, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, and 18R, all
oriented at a heading of 175.4 degrees.
Forfixed-wing aircraft it is advantageous to perform take-offs and landings into the
wind to reduce takeoff roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying
speed. Larger airports usually have several runways in different directions, so that
one can be selected that is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one
runway are often constructed to be aligned with theprevailing wind.
Runway dimensions vary from as small as 245 m (804 ft) long and 8 m (26 ft) wide
in smallergeneral aviation airports, to 5,500 m (18,045 ft) long and 80 m (262 ft)
wide at large international airports built to accommodate the largestjets, to the huge
11,917 m (39,098 ft) x 274 m (899 ft) lake bed runway 17/35 at Edwards Air Force
Base in California - a landing site for the Space Shuttle.[2]
[edit] Placement and grouping
Two runways pointing in the same direction are classed as dual or parallel runways
depending on the separation distance. In some countries, flight rules mandate that
only one runway may be used at a time under certain conditions (usually adverse
weather) if the parallel runways are too close to each other.
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[edit] Declared distances
TORA [3]
Takeoff Run Available - The length of runway declared available and
suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.[4]
TODA [3]
TakeoffDistance Available - The length of the takeoff run available plus the
length of the clearway, if clearway is provided.[4]
(The clearway length allowed must lie within the aerodrome or airport boundary.
According to the Federal Aviation Regulations and Joint Aviation Requirements
(JAR) TODA is the lesser of TORA plus clearway or 1.5 times TORA).
ASDA [3]
Accelerate-Stop Distance Available - The length of the takeoff run available
plus the length of the stopway, if stopway is provided.[4]
LDA [3]
Landing Distance Available - The length of runway which is declared
available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane landing.[5]
EDA[citationneeded]
Emergency Distance Available - LDA (or TORA) plus a stopway.
[edit] Sections ofa runway
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y The Runway Safety Area is the cleared, smoothed and graded area aroundthe paved runway. It is kept free from any obstacles that might impede flight
or ground roll of aircraft.
y The Runway is the surface from threshold to threshold, which typicallyfeatures threshold markings, numbers, centerlines, but not overrun areas at
both ends.
y Blast pads, also known as overrun areas or stopways, are often constructed
just before the start of a runway where jet blast produced by large planesduring the takeoff roll could otherwise erode the ground and eventually
damage the runway. Overrun areas are also constructed at the end of runways
as emergency space to slowly stop planes that overrun the runway on a
landing gone wrong, or to slowly stop a plane on a rejected takeoffor a take-
off gone wrong. Blast pads are often not as strong as the main paved surface
of the runway and are marked with yellow chevrons. Planes are not allowed to
taxi, take-off or land on blast pads, except in an emergency.
y Displaced thresholds may be used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing rollout,but not for touchdown. A displaced threshold often exists because obstacles
just before the runway, runway strength, or noise restrictions may make the
beginning section of runway unsuitable for landings. It is marked with white
paint arrows that lead up to the beginning of the landing portion of the
runway.
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[edit] Runway lighting
[edit] History
The first runway lighting appeared in 1930 at Cleveland Municipal Airport (now
known as Cleveland Hopkins International Airport) in Cleveland, Ohio.[citationneeded]
A line of lights on an airfield or elsewhere to guide aircraft in taking off or coming
in to land or an illuminated runway is sometimes also known as a flare path.
[edit] Technical specifications
Runway lighting is used at airports which allow night landings. Seen from the air
runway lights form an outline of the runway.[citationneeded] A particular runway may
have some or all of the following.
yRunway End Identification Lights (REIL
[3]
) unidirectional (facingapproach direction) or omnidirectional pair of synchronized flashing lights
installed at the runway threshold, one on each side.
y Runway end lights a pair of four lights on each side of the runway onprecision instrument runways, these lights extend along the full width of the
runway. These lights show green when viewed by approaching aircraft andred when seen from the runway.[citationneeded]
y Runway edge lights white elevated lights that run the length of the runwayon either side. On precision instrument runways, the edge-lighting becomes
yellow in the last 2,000 ft (610 m) of the runway. Taxiways are differentiated
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by being bordered by blue lights, or by having green centre lights, depending
on the width of the taxiway, and the complexity of the taxi pattern.[citationneeded]
y Runway CenterlineLighting System (RCLS[3]) lights embedded into thesurface of the runway at 50 ft (15 m) intervals along the runway centerline on
some precision instrument runways. White except the last 3,000 ft (914 m),
alternate white and red for next 2,000 ft (610 m) and red for last 1,000 ft (305
m).[citationneeded]
y Touchdown ZoneLights (TDZL[3]) rows of white light bars (with three ineach row) on either side of the centerline over the first 3,000 ft (914 m) (or to
the midpoint, whichever is less) of the runway.[citationneeded]
y Taxiway CenterlineLead-OffLights installed along lead-off markings,alternate green and yellow lights embedded into the runway pavement. It
starts with green light about runway centerline to the position of first
centerline light beyond holding position on taxiway.[citationneeded]
y Taxiway CenterlineLead-On Lights installed the same way as taxiwaycenterline lead-off Lights.
y Land and Hold Short Lights a row of white pulsating lights installedacross the runway to indicate hold short position on some runways which are
facilitating land and hold short operations (LAHSO).[citationneeded]
y Approach Lighting System (ALS[3]) a lighting system installed on theapproach end of an airport runway and consists of a series of lightbars, strobe
lights, or a combination of the two that extends outward from the runway
end.[citationneeded]
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According to Transport Canada's regulations,[citation needed] the runway-edge lighting
must be visible for at least 2 mi (3 km). Additionally, a new system of advisory
lighting, Runway Status Lights, is currently being tested in the United States.[6]
The edge lights must be arranged such that:
y the minimum distance between lines is 75 ft (23 m), and maximum is 200 ft(61 m);
y the maximum distance between lights within each line is 200 ft (61 m);y the minimum length of parallel lines is 1,400 ft (427 m);y the minimum number of lights in the line is 8.[7]
Control ofLighting System Typically the lights are controlled by a control tower,
a Flight Service Station or another designated authority.[citation needed] Some
airports/airfields (particularly uncontrolled ones) are equipped with Pilot Controlled
Lighting, so that pilots can temporarily turn on the lights when the relevant
authority is not available.[citationneeded] This avoids the need for automatic systems or
staff to turn the lights on at night or in other low visibility situations. This also
avoids the cost of having the lighting system on for extended periods. Smaller
airports may not have lighted runways or runway markings. Particularly at private
airfields for light planes, there may be nothing more than a windsock beside a
landing strip.
[edit] Runway markings
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There are runway markings and signs on any runway. Larger runways have a
distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single
number to indicate the thousands of feet remaining, so 7 will indicate 7,000 ft
(2,134 m) remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights.
There are three types of runways:
y visual Runways are used at small airstrips and are usually just a strip of grass,gravel, asphalt or concrete. Although there are usually no markings on a visual
runway, they may have threshold markings, designators, and centerlines.
Additionally, they do not provide an instrument-based landing procedure; pilots must be able to see the runway to use it. Also, radio communication
may not be available and pilots must be self-reliant.
y non-precision instrument runways are often used at small- to medium-sizeairports. These runways, depending on the surface, may be marked with
threshold markings, designators, centerlines, and sometimes a 1,000 ft (305
m) mark (known as an aiming point, sometimes installed at 1,500 ft (457 m)).
They provide horizontal position guidance to planes on instrument approach
via Non-directional beacon (NDB), VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)
Global Positioning System, etc.
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y precision instrument runways, which are found at medium- and large-sizeairports, consist of a blast pad/stopway (optional, for airports handling jets),
threshold, designator, centerline, aiming point, and 500 ft (152 m), 1,000 ft
(305 m)/1,500 ft (457 m), 2,000 ft (610 m), 2,500 ft (762 m), and 3,000 ft
(914 m) touchdown zone marks. Precision runways provide both horizontal
and vertical guidance for instrument approaches.
[edit] National variants
y In Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom,[8] as well as some othercountries all 3-stripe and 2-stripe touchdown zones for precision runways are
replaced with one-stripe touchdown zones.
y In Australia, precision runways consist of only an aiming point and one 1-stripe touchdown zone. Furthermore, many non-precision and visual runways
lack an aiming point.
y In some Latin American countries like Colombia, Ecuadorand Peru one 3-stripe is added and a 2-stripe is replaced with the aiming point .
y Some European countries replace the aiming point with a 3-stripe touchdownzone.
y Runways in Norway have yellow markings instead of the usual white ones.This also occurs on some airports in Japan. The yellow markings are used to
ensure better contrast against snow.
y Runways may have different types on each end. To cut costs, many airportsdo not install precision guidance equipment on both ends. Runways with one
precision end and any other type of end can install the full set of touchdown
zones, even if some are past the midpoint. If a runway has precision markings
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on both ends, touchdown zones within 900 ft (274 m) of the midpoint are
omitted, to avoid pilot confusion over which end the marking belongs to.
[edit] Runway safety
Several terms fall under the flight safety topic of runway safety, including
incursion, excursion, and confusion.
Runway excursion is an incident involving only a single aircraft where it makes an
inappropriate exit from the runway. This can happen because of pilot error, poor
weather, emergency, or a fault with the aircraft.[citation needed]Overrun is a type of
excursion where the aircraft is unable to stop before the end of the runway. An
example of such an event is Air France Flight 358 in 2005. Further examples can be
found in the overruns category. Runway excursion is the most frequent type of
landing accident, slightly ahead of runway incursion.[9] For runway accidents
recorded between 1995 and 2007, 96% were of the 'excursion' type.[9]
Runway event is another term for a runway accident.[citationneeded]
Runway incursion involves a first aircraft, as well as a second aircraft, vehicle, or
person. It is defined by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as: "Any
occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle
or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take off
of aircraft."[10]
Runway confusion involves a single aircraft, and is used to describe the error when
the aircraft makes "the unintentional use of the wrong runway, or a taxiway, for
landing or take-off".[11]
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The U.S. FAA publishes an annual report on runway safety issues, available from
the FAA website.[10][12][13] New systems designed to improve runway safety, such as
Airport Movement Area Safety System (AMASS) and Runway Awareness and
Advisory System (RAAS), are discussed in the report. AMASS prevented the
serious near-collision in the 2007 San Francisco International Airport runway
incursion.
Runway condition is also an important parameter related to meteorological
conditions and air safety.
y Dry: the surface of the runway is clear of water, snow or ice.y Damp: change of color on the surface due to moisture.y Wet: the surface of the runway is soaked but there is no significant patches of
standing water.
y Water patches: patches of standing water are visible.y Flooded: there is extensive standing water.
According to the JAR definition, a runway with water patches or that is flooded is
considered to be contaminated.
[edit] Pavement
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viewof the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the
talk page. (November2009)
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Runway surface at Congonhas International Airport in So Paulo, Brazil. The
grooves increase friction and reduce the risk ofhydroplaning.
The choice of material used to construct the runway depends on the use and the
local ground conditions. For a major airport, where the ground conditions permit,
the most satisfactory type of pavement for long-term minimum maintenance is
concrete[clarificationneeded]. Although certain airports have used reinforcement[clarification
needed] in concrete pavements, this is generally found to be unnecessary, with the
exception of expansion joints across the runway where a dowel assembly, which
permits relative movement of the concrete slabs, is placed in the concrete. Where it
can be anticipated that major settlements of the runway will occur over the years
because of unstable ground conditions, it is preferable to install asphaltic concrete
surface, as it is easier to patch on a periodic basis. For fields with very low traffic of
light planes, it is possible to use a sod surface. Some runways also make use of salt
flat runways.
For pavement designs, borings are taken to determine the subgrade condition, and based on the relative bearing capacity of the subgrade, the specifications are
established. For heavy-duty commercial aircraft, the pavement thickness, no matter
what the top surface, varies from 10 in (250 mm) to 4 ft (1 m), including subgrade.
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Airport pavements have been designed by two methods. The first, Westergaard, is
based on the assumption that the pavement is an elastic plate supported on a heavy
fluid base with a uniform reaction coefficient known as the K value[disambiguation
needed]. Experience has shown that the Kvalues on which the formula was developed
are not applicable for newer aircraft with very large footprint pressures.
The second method is called the Californiabearingratio and was developed in the
late 1940s. It is an extrapolation of the original test results, which are not applicable
to modern aircraft pavements or to modern aircraft landing gear. Some designs were
made by a mixture of these two design theories.
A more recent method is an analytical system based on the introduction of vehicle
response as an important design parameter. Essentially it takes into account all
factors, including the traffic conditions, service life, materials used in the
construction, and, especially important, the dynamic response of the vehicles using
the landing area.
Because airport pavement construction is so expensive, every effort is made to
minimize the stresses imparted to the pavement by aircraft. Manufacturers of the
larger planes design landing gear so that the weight of the plane is supported on
larger and more numerous tires. Attention is also paid to the characteristics of the
landing gear itself, so that adverse effects on the pavement are minimized.
Sometimes it is possible to reinforce a pavement for higher loading by applying an
overlay of asphaltic concrete or portland cement concrete that is bonded to the
original slab.
Post-tensioning concrete has been developed for the runway surface. This permits
the use of thinner pavements and should result in longer concrete pavement life.
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Because of the susceptibility of thinner pavements to frost heave, this process is
generally applicable only where there is no appreciable frost action.
[edit] Pavement surface
Runway pavement surface is prepared and maintained to maximize friction for
wheel braking. To minimize hydroplaning following heavy rain, the pavement
surface is usually grooved so that the surface water film flows into the grooves and
the peaks between grooves will still be in contact with the aircraft tires. To maintain
the macrotexturing built into the runway by the grooves, maintenance crews engage
in airfield rubber removal orhydrocleaning in order to meet required FAA friction
levels.
Activerunway
The active runway is the runway at an airport that is in use for takeoffs and
landings. Since takeoffs and landings are usually done as close to "into the wind"(see headwind) as possible, wind direction generally determines the active runway
(or just theactive in aviation vernacular).
Selection of the active runway, however, depends on a number of factors. At a non-
towered airport, pilots usually select the runway most nearly aligned with the wind,
but they are not obliged to use that particular runway. For example, a pilot arrivingfrom the east may elect to land straight in to an east-west runway despite a minor
tailwind or significant crosswind, in order to expedite his arrival, although it is
recommended to always fly a regulartraffic pattern to more safely merge with other
aircraft.
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At controlled airports, the active is usually determined by a tower supervisor.
However, there may be constraints, such as policy from the airport manager (calm
wind runway selection, for example, ornoise abatement guidelines) that dictate an
active runway selection that is not the one most nearly aligned with the wind.
At major airports with multiple runways, the active could be any of a number of
runways. For example, when O'Hare (ORD) is landing on 27L and 32L, departures
use 28 and 32R, thus making four active runways. When they are landing on 14R
and 22R, departures use 22L and 9R, and occasionally a third arrival runway, 14L,
will be employed, bringing the active runway count to five.
At major airports, the active runway is based on weather conditions (visibility and
ceiling, as well as wind, and runway conditions such as wet/dry or snow covered),
efficiency (ORD can land more aircraft on 14R/32L than they can on 9R/27L),
traffic demand (when a heavy departure rush is scheduled, a runway configuration
that optimizes departures vs arrivals may be desirable), and time of day (ORD is
obliged to use runway 9R/27L during the hours of roughly midnight to 6 a.m. due to
noise abatement).
London Heathrow Airport in the United Kingdom has two runways which are
parallel to each other, they are designated 09L/27R and 09R/27L. They are used in
segregated alternate mode which means one runway is used only for arrivals and the
other is only used for departures. The present pattern provides for one runway to be
used by landing aircraft from 06:00 until 15:00 and then arrivals will switch to the
other runway from 15:00 until after the last departure, after which landing aircraft
use the first runway again until 06:00. However, on Sunday each week the runway
used before midnight continues to be used for landings until 06:00. This means
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early morning arrivals before 06:00 use a different runway on successive weeks and
that the runways used by landing aircraft before and after 15:00 also alternate on a
weekly basis. This only applies to westerly operations as landing aircraft always use
runway 09L.
[edit] Runway length
)
Main article: List of longest runways
In the 1980s, Leeds Bradford International Airport extended their runway to take
wide bodied planes by building a flyoveracross the A658dual carriageway
A runway of at least 6,000 ft (1,800 m) in length is usually adequate for aircraft
weights below approximately 200,000 lb (90,000 kg). Larger aircraft including
widebodies will usually require at least 8,000 ft (2,400 m) at sea level and
somewhat more at higher altitude airports. International widebody flights, which
carry substantial amounts of fuel and are therefore heavier, may also have landing
requirements of 10,000 ft (3,000 m) or more and takeoff requirements of 13,000 ft
(4,000 m)+.
At sea level, 10,000 ft (3,000 m) can be considered an adequate length to land
virtually any aircraft. For example, at O'Hare International, when landing
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simultaneously on 22R and 28 or parallel 27L, it is routine for arrivals from the Far
East which would normally be vectored for 22R (7,500 ft (2,286 m)) or 27L
(7,967 ft (2,428 m)) to request 28 (13,001 ft (3,963 m)). It is always accommodated
although occasionally with a delay. Another example is that the Lule Airport in
Sweden was extended to 10,990 ft (3,350 m) to allow any fully loaded freight
aircraft to take off.
An aircraft will need a longer runway at a higher altitude due to decreased density
of air at higher altitudes, which reduces lift and engine power. An aircraft will also
require a longer runway in hotter or more humid conditions (see density altitude)
Most commercial aircraft carry manufacturer's tables showing the adjustments
required for a given temperature.
Taxiway
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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F-22 Raptors taxiing at ElmendorfAFB, Alaska, USA
A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars,
terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or
concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use gravel orgrass.
Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to
allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate
the runway quicker, permitting another to land in a shorter space of time.
[edit] Taxiway markings
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide
viewof the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the
talk page. (June 2010)
y Normal Centerline. A single continuous yellow line, 15 centimetres (6 in) to30 centimetres (12 in) in width.
y Enhanced Centerline. The enhanced taxiway centerline marking consists of a parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the taxiway centerline
Taxiway centerlines are enhanced for 150 feet (45.7 m) prior to a runway
holding position marking. The enhanced taxiway centerline is standard[1] at all
FARPart 139 certified airports.
y Taxiway Edge Markings.Used to define the edge of the taxiway when thetaxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. Continuous
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Markings consist of a continuous double yellow line, with each line being at
least 15 centimetres (6 in) in width spaced 15 centimetres (6 in) apart and
define the taxiway edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved
surface not intended for use by aircraft. Dashed Markings. define the edge of a
taxiway on a paved surface where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge
is intended for use by aircraft, e.g., an apron. Dashed taxiway edge markings
consist of a broken double yellow line, with each line being at least
15 centimetres (6 in) in width, spaced 15 centimetres (6 in) apart (edge to
edge). These lines are 15 feet (4.5 m) in length with 25 foot (7.5 m) gaps.
y TaxiShoulder Markings. Taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimesprovided with paved shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion. Shoulders
are not intended for use by aircraft, and may be unable to carry the aircraft
load. Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow lines perpendicular to taxiway
edge, from taxiway edge to pavement edge, about 3 metres.
y Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs. Yellow background with a blackinscription, and are provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway
direction signs at intersections, or when necessary to supplement such signs.
These markings are located on either side of the taxiway
y Surface Painted Location Signs. Black background with a yellowinscription. When necessary, these markings supplement location signs
located alongside the taxiway and assist the pilot in confirming the
designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These markings
are located on the right side of the centerline.
y Geographic Position Markings. These markings are located at points alonglow visibility taxi routes (when RVR is below 1200 feet(360m)). They are
positioned to the left of the taxiway centerline in the direction of taxiing
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Black inscription centered on pink circle with black inner and white outer
ring.
y Runway Holding Position Markings. For runways, these markings indicatewhere an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway. They
consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, spaced six or twelve
inches apart, and extending across the width of the taxiway or runway. The
solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold. There are three
locations where runway holding position markings are encountered: Runway
holding position markings on taxiways, runway holding position markings on
runways, taxiways located in runway approach areas.
y Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS). Theseconsist of two yellow solid lines spaced two feet apart connected by pairs of
solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending across the width of the taxiway.
y Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections. Theseconsist of a single dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway.
y Surface Painted Holding Position Signs. Red background signs with a whiteinscription and supplement the signs located at the holding position.
The taxiways are given alphanumeric identification. These taxiway IDs are shown
on black and yellow signboards along the taxiways.
[edit] Taxiway lights
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Taxiway edge light
For night operations, taxiways at many airports are equipped with lights, although
some small airports are not equipped with them.
y Taxiway EdgeLights: used to outline the edges of taxiways during periodsof darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These fixtures are elevated and
emitblue light.
y Taxiway CenterlineLights: They are steady burning and emit green lightlocated along the taxiway centerline
y Clearance Bar Lights: Three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lightsinstalled at holding positions on taxiways
y Runway Guard Lights: Either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lightsinstalled on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights
installed across the entire taxiway, at the runway holding position marking at
taxiway/runway intersections.
y Stop BarLights: A row of red, unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavementlights installed across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position, and
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elevated steady-burning red lights on each side used in low visibility
conditions (below 1,200 ft RVR). A controlled stop bar is operated in
conjunction with the taxiway centerline lead-on lights which extend from the
stop bar toward the runway. Following the ATC clearance to proceed, the stop
bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on.
Taxiway lights are spaced 75 feet apart. In some airports, the lights are closer at the
intersections.
Airport ramp
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The airport ramp orapron is part of an airport. It is usually the area where aircraft
are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled or boarded. Although the use of the apron
is covered by regulations, such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically more
accessible to users than the runway ortaxiway. However, the apron is not usually
open to the general public and a license may be required to gain access.
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Ben Gurion International Airport (Terminal 3) Aircraft Parking Chart
The use of the apron may be controlled by the apronmanagementservice (apron
control or apron advisory). This would typically provide a coordination service
between the users.
The apron is designated by the ICAO as not being part of the maneuvering area. All
vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are referred to as aprontraffic.
The words "apron" and "ramp" are used interchangeably in most circumstances
Generally, the pre-flight activities are done in ramps; and areas for parking &
maintenance are called aprons. Passenger gates are the main feature of a terminal
ramp.
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The ramp (or apron)
area of Ruzyn
Airport in Prague,
Czech Republic
Boeing aircraft
in parking
position
Full ramps at Cibao
International Airport, four o
six gates are occupied by
American Airlines,
Continental Airlines and
Aeromar Lineas Aereas
Dominicanas
Tucson FAA
airport
diagram, where
aprons are
shown in light
gray
Airport Layout
Aviation is controlled by an agency of the United States' government known as the
Federal Aviation Administration or the FAA. This agency mandates identification
standards for airport layout that is meant to assist pilots in easily recognizing
runways from the air and to taxi safely from the runway to the gate. From runway
numbers and painted stripes to airport and runway lights and signs, the FAA
regulates the National Airspace System.
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In navigation and surveying, all
measurement of direction is performed
by using the numbers of a compass. A
compass is a 360 circle where 0/360 is
North, 90 is East, 180 is South, and
270 is West. Runways are laid out
according to the numbers on a compass.
A runway's compass direction is
indicated by a large number painted at
the end of each runway. Preceding that
number are 8 white stripes. Following
that number by 500 feet is the
"touchdown zone" which is identified by
6 white stripes. A runway's number is not
written in degrees, but is given a
shorthand format. For example, a runway
with a marking of "14" is actually close
to (if not a direct heading of) 140
degrees. This is a southeast compass
heading. A runway with a marking o
"31" has a compass heading of 310
degrees, that is, a northwest direction.
For simplicity, the FAA rounds off the
precise heading to the nearest tens.
For example, runway 7 might have a
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precise heading of 68 degrees, but is
rounded off to 70 degrees.
Each runway has a different number on each end. Look at the diagram below. One
end of the runway is facing due west while the other end of the runway is facing
due east. The compass direction for due west is 270 degrees ("27"). The compass
direction for due east is 90 degrees ("9"). All runways follow this directional layout
This runway would be referred to as "Runway 9-27" because of its east-west
orientation.
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The FAA includes over 20 different runway layouts in their advisory materials
There are 4 basic runway configurations with the rest being variations of the
original patterns. The basic runway configurations are the following:
A) single runway
This is the simplest of the 4 basic
configurations. It is one runway
optimally positioned for prevailing
winds, noise, land use and other
determining factors. During VFR (visual
flight rules) conditions, this one runway
should accommodate up to 99 light
aircraft operations per hour. While under
IFR (instrument flight rules) conditions,
it would accommodate between 42 to 53
operations per hour depending on themix of traffic and navigational aids
available at that airport.
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B) parallel runways
There are 4 types of parallel runways.
These are named according to how
closely they are placed next to each
other. Operations per hour will vary
depending on the total number of
runways and the mix of aircraft. In IFRconditions for predominantly light
aircraft, the number of operations would
range between 64 to 128 per hour.
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C) open-V runways
Two runways that diverge from different
directions but do NOT intersect form a
shape that looks like an "open-V" are
called open-V runways. This
configuration is useful when there is
little to no wind as it allows for both
runways to be used at the same time.
When the winds become strong in one
direction, then only one runway will beused. When takeoffs and landings are
made away from the two closer ends, the
number of operations per hour
significantly increases. When takeoffs
and landings are made toward the two
closer ends, the number of operations
per hour can be reduced by 50%.
D) intersecting runways
Two or more runways that cross each
other are classified as intersecting
runways. This type of configuration is
used when there are relatively strong
prevailing winds from more than one
direction during the year. When the
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winds are strong from one direction,
operations will be limited to only one
runway. With relatively light winds,
both runways can be used
simultaneously. The greatest capacity for
operations is accomplished when the
intersection is close to the takeoff end
and the landing threshold as shown
below (with the configuration on the
left).
The capacity for the number of operations varies greatly with this runway
configuration. It really depends on the location of the intersection and the manner in
which the runways are operated (IFR, VFR, aircraft mix). This type of
configuration also has the potential to use a greater amount of land area than
parallel runway configurations.
Airports also use standardized lighting and ground markings to provide direction
and identification to all air and ground crews. To assist pilots in differentiating at
night between airport runways and freeways, airports have rotating beacon lights.
These beacons usually flash green and white lights to indicate a civilian airport.
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They are visible from the air long before the entire airport is recognizable. To help
pilots at night quickly identify the beginning of a runway, green threshold lights
line the runway's edge. Red lights mark the ends of runways and indicate
obstructions. Blue lights run alongside taxiways while runways have white or
yellow lights marking their edges. All these markings and lights serve to set a safety
standard for all pilots to follow.
Airports
Pavements Home > Concrete Pavements > Airports
Paving of airport runways, taxiways, and aprons has provided a strong market for
portland cement concrete in recent years, as commercial and military airport
upgrade their ground facilities to keep up with increasing air traffic. In 1992, 25
million flights took off or landed at the nation's 100 largest airports. By 2005, the
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Federal Aviation Administration projects that number to increase by almost 38% to
34.5 million. Demand for concrete is greatest at these large facilities, because
concrete provides the substantial pavement strength required to withstand the
impact of airplanes such as the 747, which can weigh more than 850,000 lb
(382,000 kg.) when fully loaded.
Some 1.1 million metric tons of portland cement were used in the United States for
airport pavement projects in 1995, up 22% from a decade earlier, when 895,000
metric tons were used. Since there has been little demand for construction of new
airports in the United States for some timethe Denver International Airport being
a notable exceptionmost of this cement is going into concrete needed for existing
airport pavements or adding new runways to existing airports. Engineers and
contractors are taking advantage of fast-track technology to upgrade ground
facilities with minimal traffic disruption, and continue to hone design techniques to
achieve maximum pavement life.
The first United States airport runway was built in 1928 in Dearborn, Michigan, by
the Ford Motor Company for a Ford-manufactured plane called the Silver Goose
This and other early runways used variable pavement thicknesses similar to those o
early highways: concrete 8 or 9 in. (20 or 22.5 cm) deep at the edges and 6 or 7 in
(15 or 17.5 cm) thick at the center. Until World War II, engineers designed these
concrete pavements based on the anticipated loads imposed by refueling trucks
carrying gasoline to the airplanes, rather than the airplanes themselves, because the
trucks imposed a more critical wheel load.
In 1942, at the beginning of World War II, 93 million sq yd (74 million sq m) o
airfield pavement was placed in the United States as the country mobilized to get
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planes airborne. At that time, 6 in. (15 cm) deep concrete pavements were the norm,
but heavier airplanes created the need to increase concrete runway pavement depth
to 12 in. (30 cm) thick. Eventually, engineers specified runway pavements as thick
as 24 in. (60 cm) to accommodate heavy loads imposed by larger aircraft. The
addition of more wheels to these airplanes, which better distributed the loads on the
pavement, reduced the pavement depth required to 12 in. (30 cm) in the late 1940s.
Today, specifications for airport concrete pavement vary depending on subgrade
conditions, expected loading, and anticipated pavement life-span. New concrete
runways at non-hub airports generally range in thickness from 9 to 12 in. (22.5 to
30 cm), while runways at hub airports often are constructed 15 to 18 in. (37.5 to 45
cm) thick to withstand larger and more frequent loading.
In an effort to create more cost-effective, longer lasting airport pavements, the
Federal Aviation Administration continues to investigate the durability o
alternative pavement designs. One such study is underway in Illinois at the Greater
Rockford Airport, where researchers are examining a taxiway paved under three
different specifications. Because pavements usually deteriorate first at their joints,
investigators are studying a section of unjointed, 1,200 ft (360 m) long concrete
made with shrinkage compensating cement (Type K) that expands during the
concrete's early curing to counteract the expected shrinkage that causes cracking. In
addition, the unjointed pavement includes steel reinforcing fibers and is reinforced
with prestressed steel to improve the tensile strength of the pavement. The
pavement section is only 7 in. (17.5 cm) thick.
Researchers will compare this unjointed pavement with a 10 in.(25 cm) thick
pavement section that also contains Type K cement and steel reinforcing fibers, but
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no prestressed steel reinforcing. Contractors placed this pavement with joints
spaced from 85 to 200 ft (25.5 to 60 m) apart. The third pavement section is a
control section, consisting of conventional, 15 in. (37.5 cm) thick concrete
pavement containing joints spaced 20 ft (6 m) apart. Paving engineers expect results
of the study to influence future airport pavement design.
Engineers anticipate at least 40 years of servicetwice the number of service years
airport pavements are usually designed to meetfrom pavements constructed at the
$4.2 billion Denver International Airport, opened in early 1995 after 5-1/2 years o
construction. Contractors placed 2.5 million cu yd of concrete to create five 12,000
ft (3,600 m) long runways, plus taxiways and aprons. To ensure pavement
durability, designers carefully compensated for Denver's expansive soil, which
tends to swell and move, by excavating the site. Contractors then laid down 6 ft (1.8
m) of compacted, non-expansive soil; a 12 in. (30 cm) deep subgrade layer o
rototilled, lime- or cement-treated soil; and an 8 in. (20 cm) thick cement-treated
base before placing 17 in. (42.5 cm) of concrete paving.
At many airports today, fast-track technology plays an important role in the
rehabilitation of existing pavements because airport officials cannot close runways
and taxiways without severely impacting operations. At the Seattle-Tacoma
International Airport in Washington, for example, engineers created a complex slab
replacement schedule for a 1994 rehabilitation project that allowed contractors to
rebuild the runway at night and reopen it to airplane traffic each morning.
Contractors demolished two pavement slabs each night and replaced them with
temporary, precast panels. Each subsequent night, the temporary panels were
removed, and new slabs of high-early-strength concrete were cast in place. At the
same time, workers demolished two additional existing slabs and replaced them
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with the temporary precast panels. In this manner, contractors replaced 73 concrete
runway slabs with minimal disruption.
Wind Rose
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Vista Data Vision has 3 different Wind Roses to analyze Wind Direction Data:
Basic Wind Rose, Vector Wind Rose and Filter Wind Rose.
Wind Rose is a clever way of analyzing data that is related to wind direction. Not
only is Wind Rose perfect to plot the classical Wind Rose, e.g. wind speed against
wind direction, but actually any sensor against wind direction. As an example,
check where from the precipitation is coming, or air temperature or air humidity, or
where from the ambient pollution is coming from, like Dust, NO, NOx, SO2, H2O
etc.
How does it work?
1.On a page with Wind Direction, click on its graph to enlarge it.2.On the top menu bar, choose any of the 3 Wind Rose options.3.Choose filter variable, choose time period.4.That's it! And its works both on the VDV web interface as on the db.data
browser desktop software.
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The Wind Rose diagram showing the wind distribution for a specific time period.
Advanced Wind Rose 1, Vector Wind Rose
Vector Wind Rose plot for Air Temperature.
The Vector Windrose allows you to view the distribution of a second Variable in
connection to Wind Direction.
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Customize presentation for different Units. Choose the limit for each segment as
well as the color. Choose the number of Bins and labeling options.
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Vector Wind Rose for Rain. Notice that 86% of the data is not shown since it is
below 0.1 mm.
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Vector Wind Rose forDust in PM10 units (Environmental measurement).
Advanced Wind Rose 2, Filter Wind Rose
Filter Wind Rose is a powerful tool that allows you to determine a relationship
between Wind Direction and a second measurement.
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Wind Rose filtered with SO2. This Wind Rose shows the Wind Direction for a
whole year when SO2 measures above 9.5 PPB. This shows you that the main
source for SO2 lies to the South-East from the Monitoring Station. You can also
see that SO2 measured above 9.5 PPB 0.5% of the time
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The same Wind Rose unfiltered.
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Wind Rose showing Wind Direction when Wind Speed is greater than 8 m/s.
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Wind Rose showing Wind Direction when Rain is above 0.5mm per 15minutes.
The Filter Wind Rose clearly shows that when it rains the wind is blowing from
East-South-East.
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Filter Wind Rose showing Wind Direction for a whole year when Air
Temperature measured between -1C and 1C.
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Wind rose
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the compass subdivision called "windrose", see Compass rose.
For the compass Ukrainian airline called "Windrose", see Wind Rose Aviation.
Wind rose plot forLaGuardia Airport (LGA),New York, New York. 2008
A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how
wind speed and direction are typically distributed at a particular location
Historically, wind roses were predecessors of the compass rose (found on maps), as
there was no differentiation between a cardinal direction and the wind which blew
from such a direction. Using apolar coordinate system of gridding, the frequency of
winds over a long time period are plotted by wind direction, with color bands
showing wind ranges. The directions of the rose with the longest spoke show the
wind direction with the greatest frequency.
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Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport
runways, as aircraft perform their most optimal take-offs and landings pointing into
the wind.
Recommended