1. theories of personality

Modified byElizabeth T Santosa, M.Psi, psi.

Theories Personality & Assessment

+Definition of Personality?

PersonalityPersonality refers to the relatively enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another and that lead people to act in a consistent and predictable manner, both in different situations and over extended periods of time.

Personality is defined as: the enduring or lasting patterns of behavior and thought (across time and situation).

+ Personality

Four Major Perspectives on Personality

Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivationsTrait - specific dimensions of personalityHumanistic - inner capacity for growthSocial-Cognitive - influence of environment

+Sigmund Freud

University of Vienna 1873Voracious Reader

Medical School Graduate

Specialized in NervousDisorders : Some patientsSome patients’’ disorders disordershad no physical cause.had no physical cause.

(1856-1939)

+ Sigmund Freud

What is the structure and development of personality, according to Sigmund Freud and his successors (i.e.,psychoanalysts)?

According to psychoanalysts, much of behavior is behavior is caused by parts of personality which are found in caused by parts of personality which are found in the unconscious and of which we are unawarethe unconscious and of which we are unaware.

Freud’s 3 levels of awareness/consciousness: the consciousconscious mind; the preconsciouspreconscious mind; and the unconsciousunconscious mind.

+ Psychoanalysis: The Unconscious

“the mind is like an iceberg - mostly hidden”“the mind is like an iceberg - mostly hidden”

Conscious Awarenesssmall part above surface

(Preconscious)

Unconsciousbelow the surface

(thoughts, feelings,wishes, memories)

RepressionBanishing unacceptablethoughts and passions tounconscious:Dreams and Slips

+ Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Theory of Personality

Three levels of consciousness:

Conscious mindConscious mind:things we are focusing on.

Preconscious mindPreconscious mind:things are are not currently aware of but which we could focus on.

Unconscious mindUnconscious mind:that which we areunaware of.

+ Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Theory of Personality

Freud’s theory suggest that personality is composed of the idthe id, the egothe ego, and the superegothe superego.

idid: the unorganized, inborn part of personality whose purpose is to immediately reduce tensions relating to hunger, sex, aggression, and other primitive impulses.

egoego: restrains instinctual energy in order to maintain the safety of the individual and to help the person to be a member of society.

superegosuperego: the rights and wrongs of society and consists of the conscience and the ego-ideal.

+Freud and Personality StructureFreud and Personality StructureId - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives

Pleasure Principle

Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic waysReality Principle

Super Ego- voice of consciencethat focuses on howwe ought to behave

Ego SuperEgo

Id

+ Freud’s Theory:“the ID”

The idid uses the most primitive of thinking process. Basic biological urges (e.g., hunger, self-protection). The idid operates on the Pleasure PrinciplePleasure Principle.

Seeks pleasure and avoids pain:“I want what I want NOW!I want what I want NOW!” The idid operates completely at an unconscious level.

No direct contact with reality. TheThe id has 2 major instincts:

ErosEros: life instinct = motivates people to focus on pleasure-seeking tendencies (e.g., sexual urges).

ThanatosThanatos: death instinct = motivates people to use aggressive urges to destroy.

The energy for the id’s instincts comes from the libidolibido, (the energy storehouse).

+ Freud’s Theory:“the Ego”

The egoego consists of a conscious faculty for perceiving and dealing intelligently with reality.

The egoego acts as a mediator between the id and the superego.The ego is partly conscious.Deals with the demands of reality.Makes rational decisions.

+Freud’s Theory:

“the Ego” The egoego serves the ID:

The rational part of personality that maintains contact with reality.

Governed by ‘Reality PrincipleReality Principle’’ “What consequences are there to my behavior?”

The The egoego is the Executive of the personality is the Executive of the personality The egoego controls higher mental processes.

Reasoning, problem solving. The egoego uses these higher mental processes to help satisfy the urges of

the ID.

+Freud’s Theory:“the Superego”

SuperegoSuperego: the moral part of personality. Internalized rules of parents and society.

SuperegoSuperego consists of two parts: ConscienceConscience: “notions of right/wrong.” Ego IdealEgo Ideal: “how we ideally like to be.”

Superego:Superego: constrains us from gratifying every impulse (e.g., murder) because they are immoral, and notnot because we might get caught.

SuperegoSuperego: partly conscious, partly unconscious.

+Freud: superego, id, and ego

According to Freud, an individual’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are the result of the the interaction of the id, the superego, and the interaction of the id, the superego, and the ego.ego.

+Freud’s Theory of Personality:

The id, the ego, and the superego are continually in conflictconflict with one another.

This conflict generates anxietyanxiety.

If the ego did not effectively handle the resulting anxiety, people would be so overwhelmed with anxiety that they would not be able to carry on with the tasks of everyday living.

The ego tries to control anxiety (i.e., to reduce anxiety) through the use of ego defense mechanismsdefense mechanisms.

+ Ego Defense Mechanisms:Defense MechanismsId

SuperEgo

Ego

When the inner wargets out of hand, the

result is Anxiety

Ego protects itself viaDefense Mechanisms

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms reduce/ redirectanxiety by distorting reality

+ Ego Defense Mechanisms

DefinitionDefinition: An defense mechanism is a psychology tendency that the ego uses to help prevent people from becoming overwhelmed by any conflict (and resulting anxiety) among the id, the ego, and the superego.

Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious unconscious levellevel: We are not aware of them during the time that we are

actually using them. However, we may later become aware of their

previous operation and use.

+ Freud’s Theory:Defense Mechanisms

RepressionRepression: pushing unacceptable and anxiety-producing thoughts into the unconscious; involves intentional forgetting but notnot consciously done; repressed material can be memories or unacceptable impulses. A rape victim cannot recall the details of the attack.

RegressionRegression: acting in ways characteristic of earlier life stages/earlier stage of personality. A young adult, anxious on a trip to his parents/ home,

sits in the corner reading comic books, as he often did in grade school.

+ Freud’s Theory:Defense Mechanisms

Reaction formationReaction formation: replacing an anxiety-producing feeling with its exact opposite, typically going overboard; repressed thoughts appear as mirror opposites. A man who is anxious about his interest in gay men

begins dating women several times a week.

RationalizationRationalization: creating false but believable excuses to justify inappropriate behavior; real motive for behavior is not accepted by ego. A student cheats on an exam, explaining that cheating

is legitimate on an unfair examination.

+ Freud’s Theory:Defense Mechanisms

DenialDenial: claiming and believing that something which is actually true is false. A person disbelieves that she is age, asserting that “I

am not getting older.”

DisplacementDisplacement: redirecting emotional feelings (e.g., anger) to a substitute target; involves directing unacceptable impulses onto a less threatening object/person. A husband, angry at the way his boss treated him,

screams at his children. Instead of telling your professor what you really think

of her, you tailgate and harass a slow driver on your way home from school.

+ Freud’s Theory:Defense Mechanisms

ProjectionProjection: attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings or beliefs to others; perceiving the external world in terms of one’s own personal conflicts. An employee at a store, tempted to steal some

merchandise, suspects that other employees are stealing.

SublimationSublimation: substitute socially acceptable behavior for unacceptable impulses. Playing video games instead of getting in a fight.

+ Freud: Stages of Personality

Development Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality

suggests that personality develops through a series personality develops through a series of stagesof stages, each of which is associated with a major biological function.

More specifically, Freud theorized that as people age, they pass through several systematic stages ofstages of psychosexual developmentpsychosexual development in their personality.

+ Psychosexual Stages of Development are Source of

Unconscious Conflicts. The stages of personality developmentstages of personality development involve critical

events that occur in every child’s life.

At each level, there is a conflict between pleasure and pleasure and realityreality. The resolution of this conflict determines personality.

At any stage, At any stage, ““a fixationa fixation”” can occur can occur: If needs are either under-gratified or over-gratified, we

become fixated at a particular stagefixated at a particular stage.

Each stage also involves an erogenous zoneerogenous zone. Parts of the body that involve sexual pleasure.

Freud and Personality Development

“personality forms during the first few years of life,rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood”

“personality forms during the first few years of life,rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood”

Psychosexual StagesOral (0-18 mos) - centered on the mouthAnal (18-36 mos) - focus on bowel/bladder elim.Phallic (3-6 yrs) - focus on genitals/“Oedipus Complex”

(Identification & Gender Identity)Latency (6-puberty) - sexuality is dormantGenital (puberty on) - sexual feelings toward others

Strong conflict can fixate an individual at Stages 1,2 or 3

+ Freud’s Stages of Personality Development:

Oral stageOral stage: the oral state is the first period, occurring during the first year of life.

Anal stageAnal stage: next comes the anal stage, lasting from approximately age 1 to age 3.

Phallic stagePhallic stage: the phallic stages follows, with interest focusing on the genitals.

Latency periodLatency period: then follows the latency period lasting until puberty.

Genital stageGenital stage: after puberty, people move into the genital stage, a period of mature sexuality.

+(1) Oral stage of development:

Time period: Birth to 18 months: Erogenous zone is mouthmouth.

Gratification through sucking and swallowing.

Oral fixationOral fixation has two possible outcomes. Oral receptive personalityOral receptive personality:

Preoccupied with eating/drinking. Reduce tension through oral activity.

eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails Passive and needy; sensitive to rejection.

Oral aggressive personalityOral aggressive personality: Hostile and verbally abusive to others.

+(2) Anal stage of development:

Time period: 1 1/2 to 3 years of age.

Erogenous zone is the anus.

Conflict surrounds toilet training.

Anal fixation Anal fixation has two possible outcomes. Anal retentive personalityAnal retentive personality.

Stingy, compulsive orderliness, stubborn, perfectionistic.

Anal expulsive personalityAnal expulsive personality. Lack of self control, messy, careless.

+ (3) Phallic stage of development: Time period: 3 to 6 years.

Erogenous zone is the genitals: self-stimulation of the genitals produces pleasure.

At age 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, children experience the Oedipal conflict (boys)/the Electra conflict (girls)--a process through which they learn to identify with the same gender parent by acting as much like that parent as possible.

Oedipus complex (boys) Oedipus complex (boys) vsvs Electra complex (girls) Electra complex (girls) Child is sexually attracted to the other sex parent and

wishes to replace the same sex parent.

+ (3) Phallic stage of development: Oedipus complex (little boys):Oedipus complex (little boys):

Castration anxiety:Castration anxiety: Son believes father knows about his desire for mom. Fears dad will castrate him. Represses his desire and defensively identifiesidentifies with

dad.

+(3) Phallic stage (continued):

Electra complex (little girls):Electra complex (little girls):

Penis envy:Penis envy: Daughter is initially attached to mom. Shift of attachment occurs when she realizes she lacks a

penis. She desires dad whom she sees as a means to obtain a a

penispenis substitute (a child)substitute (a child). Represses her desire for dad.

incorporates the values of her mother accepts her inherent “inferiority” in society

+(4) Latency Period:

During the latency period, little girls and little boys try to socialize only with members of their own gender.

Freud posits that children do this so as to help minimize the awareness of “sexuality.”

Thus, they continue the process of sexual repression that began in the previous stage (for those who successfully made it through the Oedipal Complex/Electra Complex).

+(5) Genital Stage:

When adolescence begin puberty, they enter the 5th stage of psychosexual development.

They develop secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., pubic hair).

The onset of the physical sexual characteristics “re-awakens” people sexual urges, and thus they are no longer able to successfully repress their sexual desires, impulses, and urges.

They begin searching for a marital mate, with whom they can share sex and intimacy.

+Summary of Freud (on personality):

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has provoked a number of criticisms.• a lack of supportive scientific data;• the theory’s inadequacy in making predictions; and• its limitations owing to the restricted population on which it is

based.

Still, the theory remains popular.• For instance, the neo-Freudian psychoanalytic theorists built

upon Freud’s work, although they placed greater emphasis on the role of the ego and paid greater attention to social factors in determining behavior.

+ Psychoanalysis: Freud and Personality

Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective

Were Freud’s theoriesthe “best of his time”or were they simply

incorrect?

Current researchcontradicts

many of Freud’sspecifi c ideas

Development does notstop in childhood

Dreams may not beunconscious

drives and wishes

Slips of the tongue arelikely competing

“nodes” in memory network

+ Summary: Freud and Personality

Freud’s Ideas as Scientific TheoryTheories must explain observations

and off er testable hypotheses

Few Objective ObservationsFew Objective Observations Few HypothesesFew Hypotheses

(Freud’s theories based on his recollections &(Freud’s theories based on his recollections &interpretations of patients’ free associations,interpretations of patients’ free associations,

dreams & slips o’ the tongue)dreams & slips o’ the tongue)

Does Not Does Not PREDICTPREDICT Behavior or Traits Behavior or Traits

+ 4 Types of Personality Theories:

(1). Psychodynamic(1). Psychodynamic approaches to personality.

(2). Humanistic(2). Humanistic approaches to personality.

(3). Trait(3). Trait approaches to personality.

(4). Social Cognitive(4). Social Cognitive approaches to personality.

+(1) Psychodynamic Personality Theories:

Source of information about personalitySource of information about personality:• Obtained from expert analyst from people in therapy.

Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelingsCause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings:• unconscious internal conflict associated with childhood

experiences.• Also, unconscious conflicts between pleasure-seeking

impulses and social restraints.

Outlook on humansOutlook on humans:• negative.

Comprehensiveness of theoryComprehensiveness of theory: • very comprehensive.

+Psychodynamic (Psychoanalytic) Theories:

Many are called Neo-FreudiansNeo-Freudians. All place lessless emphasis on sex.

Carl JungCarl Jung:Personal vs. Collective UnconsciousCollective Unconscious.Balance between introversionintroversion and extroversionextroversion.

Alfred AdlerAlfred Adler:Striving for superiorityStriving for superiority = motivation to master

environment.Notion of an Inferiority ComplexInferiority Complex.

Karen HorneyKaren Horney:Personality is Cultural rather than biologicalCultural rather than biological.

+(2) Humanistic Personality Theories: Source of information about personalitySource of information about personality:

• obtained from self-reports from the general population and people in therapy.

Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelingsCause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings:• self concepts, • self-actualizing tendencies.• conscious feelings about oneself (based on one’s

previous experiences).

Outlook on humansOutlook on humans:• positive.

Comprehensiveness of theoryComprehensiveness of theory: • fairly comprehensive.

The Humanistic Perspective

Maslow’sMaslow’sSelf-ActualizingSelf-Actualizing

PersonPerson

Roger’sRoger’sPerson-CenteredPerson-Centered

PerspectivePerspective

“Healthy” rather than “Sick”Individual as greater than the sum of test scores

+ Humanistic Personality Theories:

Maslow and Rogers Humanistic approach (Third Force):

Rejected Freud’s pessimistic view of personality. Rejected Behaviorist’s mechanistic view. More optimistic/positive about human nature. Humans are free and basically good. Humans are inner-directed. Everyone has the potential for healthy growth. Health growth involves Self actualization:

“Be all you can be.” Given the right environmental conditions,

we can reach our full potential.

Roger’s Person-Centered PerspectivePeople are basically goodwith actualizing tendencies.

Given the right environmentalconditions, we will develop

to our full potentials

Genuineness, Acceptance, Empathy

Self ConceptSelf Concept: central featureof personality (+ or -)

+Humanistic Personality Theories:

Carl Rogers Self-conceptSelf-concept: our image or perception of ourselves

(Real Self (Real Self versus Ideal Self) Ideal Self).

We have a need for positive regardpositive regard/approvalapproval from others. Conditions of worth or conditional positive regard.

The conditions under which other people will approve of us.

We change our behavior to obtain approval. What we need is: Unconditional positive regardUnconditional positive regard.

Anxiety signifies that we are not being true to our ideal self.

Well-adjusted persons: self-concept & experience.

Poorly adjusted person: self-concept & experience.

+Maslow’s Hierarchy of human motives:

one must satisfy lower needs before one satisfies higher needs.

+ Humanistic Personality Theories:

Abraham Maslow

Self-actualizationSelf-actualization is the culmination of a lifetime of inner-directed growth and improvement:• Challenging ourselves to the fullest. • Can you identify a self-actualized individual?• Characteristics of the self-actualized personthe self-actualized person:

Creative and open to new experiences. Committed to a cause or a higher goal. Trusting and caring of others, yet not dependent. Have the courage to act on their convictions.

+(3) Trait Personality Theories:

Source of information about personalitySource of information about personality:• obtained from observation of behavior and questionnaire

responses from the general population as well as from people in therapy.

Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelingsCause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings:• stable internal characteristics; • some emphasize genetic basis.

Outlook on humansOutlook on humans:• neutral - neither positive nor negative.

Comprehensiveness of theoryComprehensiveness of theory: • not very comprehensive.

+(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont): Trait approachesTrait approaches have tried to identify the most basic have tried to identify the most basic

and relatively enduring dimensions along which people and relatively enduring dimensions along which people differ from one another--dimensions known as differ from one another--dimensions known as traitstraits..

How many trait dimensions are there?How many trait dimensions are there?

How can we measure these trait dimensions?How can we measure these trait dimensions?

Where do these trait dimensions originate?Where do these trait dimensions originate?

+ (3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):Allport

AllportAllport: Most important personality traits are those that reflect our values.

AllportAllport suggested that there are 3 kinds of traits:• cardinalcardinal: a single personality trait that directs most of a

person’s activities (e.g., greed, lust, kindness).• centralcentral: a set of major characteristics that make up the

core of a person’s personality.• secondarysecondary: less important personality traits that do not

affect behavior as much as central and cardinal traits do.

(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):Eysenck

Hans Eysenck:Hans Eysenck: found two (2) major trait dimensions:• introversionintroversion

versusversusextroversionextroversion(quiet versus sociable).

• NeuroticismNeuroticismversusversusemotional stabilityemotional stability (moody versus calm).

+(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):Cattell’s Theory of Personality:

CattellCattell’’ss Trait Theory: Distinguished 3 types of traits:

Dynamic.Dynamic. Ability.Ability. Temperament.Temperament.

Also: Surface Traits: Less important to personality. Source Traits: More important basic underlying

traits.

CattellCattell identified 16 basic traits.• He developed the 16PF to measure these traits.

+(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):

Recently personality theorists have begun to converge on the view that there are 5 basic personality dimensions:

1: emotional stability versus neuroticism:emotional stability versus neuroticism: calm, secure, self-satisfied VS anxious, insecure, self-pitying.

2: extraversion versus introversion:extraversion versus introversion: sociable, fun-loving, affectionate VS retiring, sober, reserved.

3: openness versus close-mindedness:openness versus close-mindedness: imaginative, independent VS practical, conforming.

4: agreeableness versus disagreeableness:agreeableness versus disagreeableness: kind, trusting, helpful VS ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative.

5: conscientiousness versus undependable:conscientiousness versus undependable: organized, careful, disciplined VS disorganized, careless,

impulsive.

+Five Factor Model of Traits

+Five Factor Model of Traits

The Big Five

Emotional Stability

Extraversion

Openness

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

• Calm/Anxious• Secure/Insecure

• Sociable/Retiring• Fun Loving/Sober

• Imaginative/Practical• Independent/Conforming

• Soft-Hearted/Ruthless• Trusting/Suspicious

• Organized/Disorganized• Careful/Careless

+ Trait Theories of Personality:Summary

TraitsTraits: Characteristics or typical ways of acting:

Consistency: across situations, over time.

Distinctiveness: each personality is unique.

Explain why individuals behave in certain ways.

How many traits are there, and what are they? Not easy to answer; little consensus.

+ Assessing Personality Traits

How can we assess traits?(aim to simplify a person’s behavior patterns)

Personality InventoriesPersonality Inventories

MMPI:MMPI:• most widely used personality inventory.• assess psychological disorders (not normal traits).• empirically derived - test items selected based

upon how well they discriminate between groups of traits.

+ Do traits exist?The Trait-Situation Debate Walter MischelWalter Mischel (1968) argued that:

Behavior is not consistent across time or situation. If no consistency, not much point in arguing for “personality.” Thus, “personality” is an illusion.

Situationism:Situationism: Mischel believed that behavior is influenced more by the

situationsituation than any internal “trait.”

Person x situation interactionism:Person x situation interactionism:

BothBoth (a) internal traits and (b) the situation we are in are important determinants of behavior.

+(4) Social-Cognitive (Learning) Approaches to Personality Theories:

Source of information about personalitySource of information about personality:

Obtained from experiments, observations of behavior, and questionnaire responses from the general population.

Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelingsCause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings:

•reciprocal influence between people (cognitions and behavior) and their environmental situations, colored by their perceptions of control.

Outlook on humansOutlook on humans:

•neutral: neither positive nor negative.

Comprehensiveness of theoryComprehensiveness of theory:

•not very comprehensive.

+Social-Cognitive-Learning

Perspective

Behavior learned throughconditioning and observation

What we think about our situationaffects our behavior

Interaction ofEnvironment and Intellect

+ Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:

Social Learning Theory BanduraBandura: Theoretical origins in behaviorism.

Emphasizes the role of learning in personality. Classical Conditioning. Operant Conditioning . Modeling.

Instead of studying what’s going on inside the person (traits), study what is going on outside the person (environment).

How does the environment shape personality?

+ Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:

Social Learning Theory BanduraBandura also emphasized the importance of cognition in

personality development.

People develop a sense of self-efficacyself-efficacy: Our beliefs about our ability to achieve goals. Individuals with higherhigher self-efficacy:

accept greater challenges. try harder to meet challenges.

Bandura also discusses the notion of Reciprocal Reciprocal DeterminismDeterminism: The individual and the environment continually

influence one another.

+Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:Reciprocal Determination

Personal/Personal/CognitiveCognitiveFactorsFactors

BehaviorBehaviorEnvironmentEnvironment

FactorsFactors

Internal World + External World = UsInternal World + External World = Us

+Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:Reciprocal Determination

+Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:Personal Control

Internal Locus of Control:Internal Locus of Control:You pretty much control your own destiny

External Locus of Control:External Locus of Control:Luck, fate and/or powerful others control your destiny.

Methods of Study:Methods of Study:• Correlate feelings of control with behavior.Correlate feelings of control with behavior.• Experiment by raising/lowering peopleExperiment by raising/lowering people’’s sense of s sense of control and noting the consequences and effects. control and noting the consequences and effects.

+Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:Outcomes of Personal Control

Learned Helplessness:Learned Helplessness:

Uncontrollablebad events

Perceivedlack of control

Generalizedhelpless behavior

Important Issues:Important Issues:• Nursing Homes

• Prisons•Colleges

+Comparison of Personality Theories

+Personality Assessment

Personality assessmentPersonality assessment involves the techniques for systematically gathering information about a person in order to understand and predict behavior.

Goal of personality assessmentGoal of personality assessment: to obtain reliable, valid measures of individual differences that will permit the accurate prediction of behavior.

+ How do we measure “Personality”?

(1) Interview(1) Interview: Ask the person about themselves. Obtain information that reveals personality.

(2) Behavioral Observation(2) Behavioral Observation: Watch the individual’s behavior in an actual or simulated

situation.

Personality TestsPersonality Tests: (3) Objective(3) Objective tests (questionnaire tests). (4) Projective(4) Projective tests.

+How do we measure personality?

(2) Behavioral assessment

Behavioral assessmentBehavioral assessment is based on the principles of learning theory.

Behavioral assessmentBehavioral assessment employs direct measurement of behavior to determine the characteristics related to personality.

+ How do we measure personality? (3) Objective Test Assessment

Objective personality testsObjective personality tests (self-report questionnaires) present the test taker with a number of specific items to which she is asked to respond, either on paper or on a computer screen.

Self-report measuresSelf-report measures ask people about a sample range of their behaviors.

These reports are used to infer the presence of particular personality characteristics.

+How do we measure personality?

(3) Objective Test Assessment

Examples of objective personality measures:Examples of objective personality measures: the MMPI (the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Inventory). the 16 PF (the Sixteen Personality Factor

Questionnaire). the NEO-PI (the NEO Personality Inventory).

The most commonly used self-report measure is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2)2), designed to differentiate people with specific sorts of psychological difficulties from normal individuals.

+Minnesota Multiphasic

Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) Most widely used personality instrument.

Used in clinical and employment settings. MMPI-2 Has several different scales (multiphasic).(multiphasic).

MMPI sample items: ‘I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interesting

(FALSE) = Depression. ‘I seem to hear things that other people can’t hear’

(TRUE) = Schizophrenia.

Measures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest a problem: Extreme suspiciousness may indicate paranoia.

+ How do we measure personality? (4) Projective Test Assessment

A projective personality testprojective personality test is one in which the subject is given an ambiguous stimulus and asked to respond spontaneously. pictures or inkblots. No clear answer.

The ambiguous stimulus allows test takers to project their own needs, dreams, feelings into their response.

The observer’s responses to the stimulus are then used to infer information about the observer’s personality.

+ How do we measure personality? (4) Projective Test Assessment

(continued)

All projective testsprojective tests are based on the projective hypothesis which states that the individual's response to an ambiguous stimulus represents a projection of his or her own inner, often unconscious, feelings and needs.

Indirect method of personality assessment:

Based on psychoanalytic assumptionspsychoanalytic assumptions: Personality is mostly unconscious. People are unaware of contents of unconscious.

+ How do we measure personality? (4) Projective Test Assessment

(continued):

The 2 most frequently used projective tests are:• the RorschachRorschach: reactions to inkblots are employed to

classify personality types.• the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): stories about

ambiguous pictures are used to draw inferences about the storyteller’s personality.

+Rorschach Inkblot Test

Most popular projective technique.

Respond to inkblot: ““What could this be?What could this be?””

+

THE END