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PSYCHOLOGY(8th Edition)David Myers
PowerPoint SlidesAneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2006
2
Intelligence
Chapter 11
3
Statistical ReasoningStatistical procedures analyze and
interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye misses.
Composition of ethnicity in urban locales
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
• FOUR TYPES:– N : the number of observations that make up the
data set– Measures of Central Tendency: the typical value
of a set of data– Measures of Variability: summarizes the spread,
or variability, in a set of data– Correlation Coefficient: expresses the
correlation or relationship between two sets of data 4
5
Measures of Central Tendency: most typical scoreMode: The most frequently occurring
score in a distribution.
Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together.
Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.
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Measures of Central TendencyA Skewed Distribution - what is the
effect of an extreme score on the mean?
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REGRESSION TO THE MEAN
• There is a tendency overtime for scores to move toward the mean.
• How might this apply to your test scores?
8
CorrelationWhen one trait or behavior
accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Correlation coefficient
Indicates directionof relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)
r = 0.37+
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two
variables.
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CORRELATION
• POSITIVE CORRELATION: A direct relationship. Two variables increase or decrease together.
• NEGATIVE CORRELATION: An inverse relationship. As one variable increases, the other decreases.
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CORRELATION
• Strength of the relationship is indicated by the number. – The closer it is to zero, the weaker the
relationship– The closer it is to one (plus or minus), the
stronger the relationship– Interpret:
• +.8, -,2, -.9, +.3
Correlation: Which of the following examples are
positive,negative or zero?
• 1) speed in running and the number of bricks carried while running
• 2) IQ and shoe size
• 3) IQ and school grades
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or
Correlation does not mean causation!!!
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STATISTICS LAB PACKET
• Go over pages 4, 5, 6.
• Complete page 9.
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Measures of VariationRange: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
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Normal CurveStandardized tests establish a normal
distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve or normal distribution.
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SKEWED DISTRIBUTION
• Positive skew = very high scores pull the mean toward the higher end (mean is more positive or greater than the rest of the scores); tails to the right due to high scores
• Negative skew = very low scores cause mean being pulled down toward the lower end of the scores; tails to left due to low scores
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STANDARD DEVIATION
• Standard deviation is based on how different the scores are from each other.
• The normal distribution is based on standard deviations and allows us to see what percent of the population would “normally” fall within a certain range of scores.
• Consider height and intelligence on the normal distribution .
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STANDARD DEVIATION
• Let’s assume that the average height for women is 64 inches and the standard deviation is 2 inches
• This means that:– 68% of the population of women is between __ and __
inches.– 95% of the female population are between ___ and
____ inches – Since the normal curve is symmetrical, then 2.5% of
women’s heights are below ____ inches and 2.5% have heights above ____.
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STANDARD DEVIATION
• Let’s assume that the average height for women is 64 inches and the standard deviation is 2 inches
• This means that:– 68% of the population of women is between __ and __
inches.– 95% of the female population are between ___ and
____ inches – Since the normal curve is symmetrical, then 2.5% of
women’s heights are below ____ inches and 2.5% have heights above ____.
20
Normal CurveStandardized tests establish a normal
distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve or normal distribution.
21
Normal CurveStandardized tests establish a normal
distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called
the normal curve.
23
CALCULATING STANDARD DEVIATION
• Standard deviation is the square root of the variance.
• Variance is the measure of how different the scores are from each other. In other words, how much spread there is overall among the scores.
• The difference between the scores is measured by the distance of each score from the mean of all the scores.
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Standard Deviation
REVIEW
• Null hypothesis
• Statistical significance
• Experimental group
• Control group
• Independent variable
• Dependent variable
• Confounding variables25
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STANDARD DEVIATION
• Complete pages 7, 8, and 10 in your Statistics Lab Packet
27
REVIEW
• What information about data do the measures of central tendency show?
• What information about data do the range and standard deviation show?
• Draw two graphs both with normal distributions and one with a SD = 4; the other with a SD = 14
STATISTICS FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
• Complete Stat lab• Complete Study Guide Questions; correct:
– Page 24: #’s 13 -18, 20 – Page 27: # 19– Page 29: #’s 15, 17
• Complete the following multiple choice questions in Statistics in Psychological Research Test:
#21 - #30• See Mrs. K-H with all materials
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Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by
experimental manipulation or by chance.
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Making InferencesWhen is an Observed Difference Reliable?
1. Representative samples are better than biased samples.
2. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.
3. More cases are better than fewer cases.
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Making Inferences
When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance.
For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level, set at 5 percent (.05). A greater than one in twenty probability is considered to be not due to chance alone.
When is a Difference Significant?
32
Making Inferences
Statistical significance refers to how two groups’ means are different. If you graphed the data from two groups
and the graphs did not overlap or only overlapped a little, then the difference would be significant. If the
graphs overlapped a lot, then the difference would not be significant.
Significance allows you to say how likely the difference in means is due to chance. The usual goal is to get a significant level of 0.05 (or five percent), which says
that the results are only 5 percent due to chance (or 95 percent due to your independent variable.)
When is a Difference Significant?
STATISTICS FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
• Complete Appendix 2: Statistical Reasoning
• Omit Question #’s 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 15, 18, 19, 21, 25, 31, 32
• Underline in the stem of the question the concept being tested
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DIRECTIONS FOR STATISTICS ACTIVITIES
Complete Standard Deviation handout; you will need a ruler and/or graph paper
. Complete Study Guide Questions; correct– Page 24: #’s 13 -18, 20 – Page 27: # 19– Page 29: #’s 15, 17
If you need additional help complete PsychSim 5: Descriptive Statistics at home
35
TRUE OR FALSE?
1. People with higher IQs have longer life spans.2. Exceptionally creative architects,
mathematicians, scientists, and engineers usually score no higher on intelligence tests than do their less creative peers.
3. Highly educated people die with more synapses than their less-educated peers.
4. There is a slight positive correlation between brain size and intelligence score.
36
TRUE OR FALSE?
5. Today’s Americans score higher on IQ tests than Americans did in the 1930’s.
6. How quickly 2 to 7 month-old babies become bored with a picture is one indicator of later intelligence.
7. As adopted children grow older, their intelligence scores become more similar to those of their biological parents than to those of their adoptive parents.
37
ANSWERS
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. TRUE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
6. TRUE
7. TRUE
38
Intelligence
Do we have an inborn general mental capacity (intelligence)? If so, can we
quantify this capacity as a meaningful number?
39
Defining Intelligence - Intro
• Who is more intelligent?– Lady Gaga or Tiger Woods?– Chase Utley or Peyton Manning?– Albert Einstein or Donald Trump?
• How is intelligence measured by schools?
• How has this impacted your life?
40
A Conceptual Definition of Intelligence
• Intelligence is an inferred process that humans use to explain the different degrees of adaptive success in people’s behavior.
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Operational Definitions of Intelligence
• Intelligence is .........– A person’s score on an IQ test– The extent of a person’s education– A person’s verbal skills
A person’s adaptability in new circumstances
A person’s yearly income
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What is Intelligence?
Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new
situations.
In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures.
This tends to be “school smarts.”
43
Controversies About Intelligence
Despite general agreement among psychologists about the nature of
intelligence, two controversies remain:
1. Is intelligence a single overall ability or is it several specific abilities?
2. With modern neuroscience techniques, can we locate and measure intelligence within the brain?
44
Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?
Have you ever thought that since people’s mental abilities are so diverse, it
may not be justifiable to label those abilities with only one word, intelligence?
You may speculate that diverse abilities represent different kinds of intelligences.
How can you test this idea?
45
General Intelligence
The idea that general intelligence (g) exists comes from the work of Charles
Spearman (1863-1945) who helped develop the factor analysis approach in
statistics.
Athleticism, like intelligence, is many things
46
General Intelligence
Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis.
For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on
paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal
intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning
ability factor.
47
General Intelligence
Later psychologists analyzed Thurstone’s data and found a weak relationship
between these clusters, suggesting some evidence of a g factor.
Satoshi Kanazawa theorized that general intelligence evolved to help people solve
novel problems, distinct from evolutionarily familiar problems like reading emotions or finding a mate
(different type of intelligence)
48
General Intelligence
L. L. Thurstone, a critic of Spearman, analyzed his subjects NOT on a single scale of general intelligence, but on
seven clusters of primary mental abilities, including:
1. Word Fluency2. Verbal
Comprehension3. Spatial Ability4. Perceptual Speed5. Numerical Ability6. Inductive Reasoning7. Memory
49
Contemporary Intelligence Theories
Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) supports Thurstone’s idea that intelligence comes
in multiple forms. Gardner notes that brain damage may diminish one type of
ability but not others.
People with savant syndrome excel in abilitiesunrelated to general intelligence.
50
Howard Gardner
Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences and speculates about a ninth one — existential intelligence. Existential intelligence is the ability to think about the
question of life, death and existence.
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DEVELOPING AND PRESENTING A LESSON ON
INTELLIGENCE
• Select the intelligence area
• Read the appropriate pages
• Plan lesson emphasizing your intelligence area in your activities
• Fill out lesson plan
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LESSON PLAN CHECKLIST
• Do each of your objectives start with a verb?
• Is each objective measurable?• Do the activities reflect the intelligence
domain?• Do the activities match the objectives?• Is the lesson approximately 10 minutes in
length?
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Robert Sternberg’ Triarchic Theory
Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with Gardner, but suggests three intelligences rather than eight.
1. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests.
2. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.
3. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
54
Criticism of Sternberg
• Three intelligences are not as independent of each other as Sternberg asserts
• Three areas actually share an underlying general intelligence
• Practical intelligence is actually: g + personality + motivation
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Theories: Comparison
56
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions (Salovey and colleagues, 2005). The test
of emotional intelligence measures overall emotional intelligence and its four
components.
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Emotional Intelligence: Components
Component Description
Perceive emotionRecognize emotions in
faces, music and stories
Understand emotion
Predict emotions, how they change and blend
Manage emotionExpress emotions in different situations
Use emotionUtilize emotions to adapt or
be creative
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Emotional Intelligence
Modestly better job performance
Can delay gratification
Often succeed in career, marriage, and parenting situations where academically smarter but emotionally less intelligent people fail
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Emotional Intelligence: Criticism
Gardner and others criticize the idea of emotional intelligence and question whether
we stretch this idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our emotions.
“g” does predict both occupational status and job performance.
g gets you in the door; other factors determine success
60
Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. It correlates
somewhat with intelligence.1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.2. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things
in novel ways.3. Adventuresome Personality: A personality that
seeks new experiences rather than following the pack.
4. Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within.
5. A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom.
61
CREATIVIY
• What is the difference between convergent and divergent thinking?
• Give examples of each.
• Which type of thinking, convergent or divergent, is generally associated with creativity?
62
Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable?
Recent Studies indicate some correlation (about +.40) between brain size and
intelligence. As brain size decreases with age, scores on verbal intelligence tests also
decrease.
Gray matter concentration in people with high intelligence.
63
Brain FunctionStudies of brain functions show that people
who score high on intelligence tests perceive stimuli faster, retrieve information from memory quicker, and show faster brain
response times.
People with higher intelligence respond correctly and quickly tothe above question.
64
Conceptual Difficulties
Psychologists believe that intelligence is a concept and not a thing.
When we think of intelligence as a trait (thing) we make an error called
reification — viewing an abstract immaterial concept as if it were a
concrete thing. (Example: She has an IQ of 120)
65
REIFICATION
• WE INVENT A CONCEPT, GIVE IT A NAME, AND THEN CONVICE OURSELF IT EXISTS.
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INTELLIGENCE AND CULTURE
• Intelligence is a socially constructed concept. What does our culture deem as intelligent?
67
Generally Accepted Definition of Intelligence
• Mental quality consisting ofthe ability to learn from experience
solve problems
use knowledge to adapt to new situations
68
Controversies About Intelligence
Despite general agreement among psychologists about the nature of
intelligence, two controversies remain:
1. Is intelligence a single overall ability or is it several specific abilities?
2. With modern neuroscience techniques, can we locate and measure intelligence within the brain?
69
Assessing Intelligence
Psychologists define intelligence testing as a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others
using numerical scores.
70
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon practiced a
more modern form of intelligence testing by developing questions
that would predict children’s future
progress in the Paris school system.
71
Alfred Binet
• Binet and Simon set out to measure mental age: the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance
• They theorized that mental aptitude is a general capacity that might predict school achievement
• Binet refused to speculate as to what the test measured or what led to high or low scores
• Binet felt tests should be used solely to identify children needing special attention
72
Lewis TermanIn the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test for
American school children and named
the test the Stanford-Binet Test. The following is the
formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), introduced by
William Stern:
73
Intelligence Quotient
• IQ as measured by the Stanford-Binet worked well for children, but not for adults
• Current scores of intelligence are the test-taker’s performance relative to the average performance of others the same age (norms are established)
• Average score = 100
74
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT
• Terman was an advocate of widespread use of intelligence tests (believed in innate intelligence) as well as eugenics (encourage only the smart and fit people to reproduce)
75
GENERAL APTITUDE TESTS
• DO GENERAL APTITUDE TESTS HAVE MORE RELIABILITY OR VALIDITY?– Predictive power diminishes with age– Best for young children– Major reason is the narrowness of the range
(who will you be competing against in college? Will SAT scores predict your performance?)
76
Abuses of Intelligence Tests
• Testing of immigrants led to quota laws
• World War I recruits used to establish unfair immigration laws with biased quotas esp against Southern and Eastern Europeans
http://encarta.msn.com/media_461550852_761570026_-1_1/
U_S_Army_Alpha_Intelligence_Test_Sample_Questions.html
77
Aptitude and Achievement Tests
Aptitude tests are intended to predict your ability to learn a new skill and achievement tests are intended to reflect what you have
already learned.
78
David Wechsler
Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS) and later the Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children (WISC), an
intelligence test for preschoolers.
79
WAIS
WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intelligence that
are designed to assess clinical and educational problems.
80
WAIS AND WISC
• Significant improvement over previous tests
• Nonverbal performance scales less native language dependent
• Less dependent on culture knowledge
• Transparency examples:
81
• To keep average scores near 100, Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales are re-standardized.
82
Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested
population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.
83
Flynn Effect
In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27
points. This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.
84
FLYNN EFFECT
• Reason is unknown• Possible explanations:
– Nutrition– Schooling– Stimulating environments– Hybrid vigor– Testing familiarity
85
Principles of Test Construction
For a psychological test to be acceptable it must fulfill the following three criteria:
1. Standardization
2. Reliability3. Validity
86
Standardization
Standardizing a test involves administering the test to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a
basis for meaningful comparison.
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Reliability
A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers
establish different procedures:
1. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.
2. Reliability using different tests: Using different forms of the test to measure consistency between them.
3. Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.
88
RELIABILITY
• To establish reliability, you look for high correlation coefficient
• Current IQ tests are +.9
89
Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is
supposed to measure or predict.
1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait.
2. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.
3. Criterion Validity: Test agrees with an independent measure of what the test aims to assess.
90
ACTIVITY
• Within a small group, develop a test of general athletic ability.
• This activity will give you practice with the concepts of operational definitions, standardization, reliability, and validity.
91
The Dynamics of Intelligence
Does intelligence remain stable over a lifetime or does it change? Are individuals
on the two extremes of the intelligence scale really that different?
92
Stability or Change?
Intelligence scores become stable after about seven years of age. In numerous
studies, stability of intelligence scores have been determined (Angoff, 1988; Deary et al.,
2004).
93
STABILITY OR CHANGE?
• Based on SAT scores, verbal and math scores are only moderately correlated, indicating these aptitudes are distinct.
• Reliability between two verbal measurements or two math measurements is high, indicating stability
• Some studies have shown a link with late onset Alzheimer’s and lower verbal ability.
94
Extremes of Intelligence
A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high
intelligence (IQ 130). These two groups are significantly different.
95
Mental Retardation
Mentally retarded individuals required constant supervision a few decades ago, but with a supportive family environment and special education they can now care for
themselves.
96
CAUSES OF MENTAL RETARDATION
• Syndromes: Downs, Williams
• Familial retardation
• FAS
• Brain damage
97
High Intelligence
Contrary to popular belief, people with high intelligence test scores tend to be healthy,
well adjusted, and unusually successful academically.
98
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence
No other topic in psychology is so passionately followed as the one that asks
the question, “Is intelligence due to genetics or environment?”
99
GENETIC INFLUENCES
• Identical twin IQ scores virtually identical (including those raised separately – Bouchard)
• Identical twins have very similar gray matter volume
• Genes for genius?
100
Genetic Influences
Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children together support the idea
that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence.
101
Adoption Studies
Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted
parents.
102
HERITABILITY
• Definition: the variation is attributable to genetic factors
• We can attribute to heredity 50% of the variation in intelligence.
• We can never say what percentage of an individual’s intelligence is inherited.
• Explain: the more environments are similar, the more heritable are traits such as intelligence
• Why do genes and environment correlate? Outliers example.
103
Environmental Influences
Studies of twins and adopted children also show the following:
1. Fraternal twins raised together tend to show similarity in intelligence scores.
2. Identical twins raised apart show slightly less similarity in their intelligence scores.
104
Early Intervention Effects
Early neglect from caregivers leads children to develop a lack of personal control over the
environment, and it impoverishes their intelligence.
Romanian orphans with minimalhuman interaction are delayed in their development.
105
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES
• Among the poor, environmental conditions can override genetic differences.
• Malnutrition• Environment has a bigger influence in
extreme cases than in “normal” compared to “enriched”
• Early intervention programs such as Head Start have marginal benefits
106
Schooling Effects
Schooling is an experience that pays dividends, which is reflected in intelligence scores. Increased schooling correlates with
higher intelligence scores.
To increase readiness for schoolwork,projects like Head Start facilitate leaning.
107
Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores
Why do groups differ in intelligence? How can we make sense of these differences?
108
Ethnic Similarities and Differences
1. Racial groups differ in their average intelligence scores.
2. High-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education and income.
To discuss this issue we begin with two disturbing but agreed upon facts:
109
Racial (Group) Differences
If we look at racial differences, white Americans score higher in average
intelligence than black Americans (Avery and others, 1994). European New
Zealanders score higher than native New Zealanders (Braden, 1994).
White-Americans Black-Americans
Average IQ = 100 Average IQ = 85
Hispanic Americans
110
GROUP DIFFERENCES
• Do these scores tell us anything about an individual’s performance on an IQ test?
• Graph of normal distributions
• Does heredity contribute to these group differences?
• Review heritability
111
REACTION RANGE
• An individual’s potential intelligence is their reaction range
• The reaction range is approximately 15 points
• What is the relevance for group differences?
112
Environmental Effects
Differences in intelligence among these groups are largely environmental, as if one environment is more fertile in developing
these abilities than another.
113
Reasons Why Environment Affects Intelligence
1. Races are remarkably alike genetically. 2. Race is a social category, not a neatly
defined biological category.3. Asian students outperform North American
students on math achievement and aptitude tests.
4. Today’s better prepared populations would outperform populations of the 1930s on intelligence tests.
5. White and black infants tend to score equally well on tests predicting future intelligence.
6. Different ethnic groups have experienced periods of remarkable achievement in different eras.
114
Reasons Why Environment Affects Intelligence, continued
The Flynn effect is the same margin that intelligence test scores differ between blacks and whites
Gap between black and white scores widen in High School and decrease rapidly in college. Explanation?
115
Gender Similarities and Differences
There are seven ways in which males and females differ in various abilities.
1. Girls are better spellers
2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large vocabularies
3. Girls are better at locating objects
4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color
5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement
6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, but under perform at math computation
7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do
116
Gender Similarities and Differences
8. Math SAT scores: males are over represented at extreme scores
9. Males do better in physics and computer science AP courses
10. Males tend to excel at spatial tasks such as rotating 3-dimensional objects in one’s mind
117
REASONS FOR GENDER DIFFERENCES
• Evolutionary history as hunters and gatherers
• Exposure to hormones during prenatal period
118
GENDER DIFFERENCES
• Eliz Spelke: differences are oversimplified
Women MenVerbal fluency verbal
analogies
Math calculations reasoning
etc
119
The Question of Bias
• Previous tests were biased in favor of certain cultural experiences, Wechsler’s addition of a nonverbal aspect improved this problem
• Current tests only expose unequal experience and opportunities that have real consequences (not bias, rather reality)
120
The Question of Bias
Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences.
However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense that they do accurately predict
performance of one group over the other.
121
Stereotype Threat
A stereotype threat is a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype (Claude Steele).
This phenomenon appears in some instances in intelligence testing among
African-Americans and among women of all colors.
122
STEREOTYPE THREAT
• Over time when reminded of stereotype– Students will disidentify with school
achievement
– Detach their self-esteem from academics and look for self-esteem elsewhere
123
INTELLIGENCE:COMPUTER ACTIVITIES
Go to my Web Page, Intelligence Homework Page
intelligence (sunsetpsychology)Complete this until you can do it without ANY
mistakes
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