1 Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Chapter 2 Introduction to the...

1Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

Chapter 2

Introduction to the Quantitative Research Process

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Formal, objective, rigorous, systematic process for generating information

Describes new situations, events, or concepts

Examines relationships among variables Determines the effectiveness of treatments

Quantitative Research

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Increased control

with type of study

Quantitative Research (cont’d)

Descriptive Correlational Quasi-experimental Experimental

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Descriptive Research

Exploration and description of phenomena in real-life situations

New meaning is discovered and the description of concepts is accomplished

Helps to identify relationships

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Correlational Research

Looks at the relationship between two or more variables

Determines the strength and type of relationships

Explains what is seen No cause and effect

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Quasi-experimental Research

Examines cause-and-effect relationships Less control by researcher than true

experimental designs Samples are not randomly selected. All variables in the study cannot be controlled

by the researcher.

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Experimental Research

Looks at cause-and-effect relationships Highly controlled, objective, systematic

studies Involves the measurement of independent

and dependent variables

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Experimental Research (cont’d)

Main characteristics: Controlled manipulation of at least one

independent variable Uses experimental and control groups Random assignment of the sample to the

experimental and control groups

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Concepts Relevant to Quantitative Research

Basic research Applied research Rigor Control Extraneous variables Sampling

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Basic Research

Research for the sake of research Research to find out the truth Investigating “what is”

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Applied Research

Attempts to solve real problems in clinical practice

Concerns what effects the intervention may have on patients

Applies findings in the real world on real patients

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Rigor in Quantitative Research

Striving for excellence in research and adherence to detail

Precise measurement tools, a representative sample, and a tightly controlled study design

Logical reasoning is essential. Precision, accuracy, detail, and order

required

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Control in Quantitative Research

Rules are followed to decrease the possibility of error, and are the design of the study.

Different levels of control depending on study Quasi-experimental studies partially controlled

regarding selection of subjects Experimental studies highly controlled because of

precision of sample selection

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Extraneous Variables inQuantitative Research

These occur in all research studies. They may interfere with the hypothesized

relationships between variables. The influence of extraneous variables can be

decreased through sample selection and the use of defined research settings.

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Sampling in Quantitative Research

Process of selecting subjects who are representative of the population

Random sampling Each member has an equal chance of being

selected. Has the most control

Convenience sampling Whoever is available

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Settings in Quantitative Research

The location where studies take place Must be defined in advance Involved in the rigor and control of the study Types of research settings:

Natural or field settings Partially controlled settings Highly controlled or laboratory settings

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Control in Quantitative Research

Type of Quantitative

Research

ResearcherControl

ResearchSetting

Descriptive Uncontrolled Natural or partially controlled

Correlational Uncontrolled or partially controlled

Natural or partially controlled

Quasi-experimental Partially controlled Partially controlled

Experimental Highly controlled Laboratory

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Problem-Solving Process

Data collection Problem definition Plan

Setting goals Identifying solutions

Implementation Evaluation and revision

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Steps of the Quantitative Research Process

Research problem and purpose Literature review Study framework Objectives, questions, or hypotheses Study variables

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Steps of the Quantitative Research Process (cont’d)

Assumptions Limitations

Methodological Theoretical

Research design Population and sample Methods of measurement

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Steps of the Quantitative Research Process (cont’d)

Data collection and analysis Research outcomes Communication of findings

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Research Problem and Purpose

Research problem is an area of concern needing research for nursing practice. The problem identifies, describes, or predicts the

research situation. Research purpose comes from the problem

and identifies the specific goal or aim of the study. The purpose includes variables, population, and

setting for the study.

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Literature Review

Collecting pertinent literature to give in-depth knowledge about the problem

Understanding what knowledge exists to make changes in practice

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Study Framework

Framework is the abstract, theoretical basis for a study that enables the researcher to link the findings to nursing’s body of knowledge.

Theory is an integrated set of defined concepts and relational statements that present a view of a phenomenon and can be used to describe, explain, predict, or control phenomena.

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Research Objectives, Questions, and Hypotheses

All identify relationship between variables and indicate population to be studied

Narrower in focus than the purpose and often specify only one or two research variables

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Study Variables

Variables are concepts that are measured, manipulated, or controlled in a study. Concrete variables: temperature, weight Abstract variables: creativity, empathy

Conceptual definition: gives meaning to a concept

Operational definition: variable can be measured using this description

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Example of Definitions: Physical Symptoms

Conceptual definition Physical symptoms are “behavioral manifestations

that result directly from the traumagenic dynamics of child sexual abuse.” (Hulme & Grove, 1994, p. 522)

Operational definition ASI questionnaire was used to measure physical

symptoms

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Assumptions

Statements are taken for granted or are considered true.

Assumptions are often unrecognized in thinking and behavior.

Sources of assumptions are universally accepted truths.

They are often embedded in the philosophical base of the study’s framework.

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Limitations

Restrictions in a study that may decrease the credibility and generalizability of the findings

Theoretical limitations Restrict the generalization of the findings Reflected in the framework and definitions

Methodological limitations Restrict the population to which the findings can

be generalized May result from an unrepresentative sample or

weak design

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Research Design

Blueprint for conducting the study Maximizes control over factors that could

interfere with the study’s desired outcome Directs the selection of the population,

sampling, methods of measure, plans for data collection, and analysis

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Population and Sample

Population All elements that meet

certain criteria for inclusion in study

Example: all women students in higher education

Sample A subset of the

population that is selected for study

Example: women students in three state universities in the Southwest

(Hulme & Grove, 1994)

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Methods of Measurement

Assigning numbers to objects Application of rules to development of a

measurement device or instrument Data are gathered at the nominal, ordinal,

interval, or ratio level of measurement. Must examine reliability and validity of

measurement tool Reliability: consistency of the tool Validity: does it measure what it is supposed to

measure?

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Data Collection

Precise, systematic gathering of information for the study

Consent must be obtained from the sample. Researchers use observation, interviews,

questionnaires, or scales to gather information.

Described under the “procedures” section of a research article

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Data Analysis

Reduce, organize, and give meaning to data Descriptive and inferential analysis of data

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Results

Descriptions of findings after data were analyzed

Usually organized by research objectives, questions, or hypotheses

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Research Outcomes

Interprets data findings in meaningful manner Involves forming conclusions and considering

implications for nursing Suggests future studies Generalizes the findings

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Research Reports and Communication of Findings

Summarizes major elements of a study and identifies contributions of study to nursing knowledge

Presented at professional meetings and conferences and published in journals and books

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Content of Research Reports

Abstract—summary of study in 100 to 250 words

Introduction—problem, purpose, literature, framework, and hypothesis

Methods—design, sample, setting, tool Results—data analysis procedures Discussion—findings, conclusions,

implications Reference list—all sources cited

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Skimming a Research Report

Quickly review source for broad overview. Read title, author’s name, abstract,

introduction, and discussion. Examine conclusions and implications. Give preliminary judgment of study.

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Comprehending a Research Report

Type of study conducted—highlight key points

Knowledge available on topic Expertise of researcher

Replication versus original research Funding resources of researcher

Amount of funding Sources of funding

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Analyzing a Research Report

Examine parts of report in depth for accuracy, completeness, uniqueness of information, and organization.

Was research process logically presented? Examine discussion section for critical

arguments.

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Initial Research Report Critique

What type of study was conducted? What was the setting for the study? Were steps for the research process clearly

identified? Were any of steps missing? Did the steps logically link together?