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Guide to
Meteorological Instruments
and
Methods of Observation
WMO-No. 8
2008 edition
Updated in 2010
2012
WMO-No. 8
© World Meteorological Organization, 2008
The right of publication in print, electronic and any other form and in any language is reserved by WMO. Shortextracts from WMO publications may be reproduced without authorization, provided that the complete sourceis clearly indicated. Editorial correspondence and requests to publish, reproduce or translate this publication inpart or in whole should be addressed to:
Chairperson, Publications Board World Meteorological Organization (WMO)7 bis , avenue de la Paix Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 84 03
P.O. Box No. 2300 Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 80 40CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland E-mail: publications@wmo.int
ISBN 978-92-63-10008-5
NOTE
The designations employed in WMO publications and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of WMO concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Opinions expressed in WMO publications are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of WMO. The
mention of specific companies or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by WMO in preference
to others of a similar nature which are not mentioned or advertised.
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PUBLICATION REVISION TRACK RECORD
Date Part/chapter/section Purpose ofamendment
Proposed by:(body andsession)
Approval Resolution
2010 Part I: Chapters 1, 3, 5,6, 7, 14 and 15; Part II:Chapters 2, 4 and 9; andPart III: Chapters 1, 4and 5
Consolidation of amendmentsapproved by the Commission for Instruments and Methodsof Observation at its fifteenthsession in September 2010, theExecutive Council and SixteenthCongress
CIMO-XV Resolution 10 (EC-LIX),Resolution 7 (Cg-XVI)
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PART I
MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLES
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CHAPTER 1. GENERAL I.1–27
Class 5 (additional estimated uncertainty cannot be defined)
Site not meeting the requirements of class 4.
GLOBAL AND DIFFUSE RADIATION
Close obstacles have to be avoided. Shading due to the natural relief is not taken into account for the clas-
sification. Non-reflecting obstacles below the visible horizon can be neglected.
An obstacle is considered as reflecting if its albedo is greater than 0.5.
The reference position for elevation angles is the sensitive element of the instrument.
Class 1
(a) No shade projected onto the sensor when the sun is at an angular height of over 5°. For regions with
latitude 60°, this limit is decreased to 3°;
(b) No non-shading reflecting obstacles with an angular height above 5° and a total angular width above10°.
Class 2
(a) No shade projected onto the sensor when the sun is at an angular height of over 7°. For regions with
latitude 60°, this limit is decreased to 5°;(b) No non-shading reflecting obstacles with an angular height above 7° and a total angular width above
20°.
Class 3
(a) No shade projected onto the sensor when the sun is at an angular height of over 10°. For regions withlatitude 60°, this limit is decreased to 7°;
(b) No non-shading reflecting obstacles with an angular height above 15° and a total angular width above
45°.
PART I. MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLESI.1–28
Class 4
No shade projected during more than 30 per cent of the daytime, for any day of the year.
Class 5
Shade projected during more than 30 per cent of the daytime, for at least one day of the year.
DIRECT RADIATION AND SUNSHINE DURATION
Close obstacles have to be avoided. Shading due to the natural relief is not taken into account for the clas-
sification. Obstacles below the visible horizon can be neglected.
The reference position for angles is the sensitive element of the instrument.
Class 1
No shade projected onto the sensor when the sun is at an angular height of over 3°.
Class 2
No shade projected onto the sensor when the sun is at an angular height of over 5°.
Class 3
No shade projected onto the sensor when the sun is at an angular height of over 7°.
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C H A P T E R 1 . GE NE R A L
I .1 – 3 1
N
1 : 6
0
2 0 0 m
1 : 1 0
1 : 2 0
E
S
W
N
x x x
( 1 2 )
+ 3
N
S t a t i on
S ur f a c e c ov e r un d e r s c r e e n
G a u g e r i mh e i g
h t
A n e n om o t e r h e i g
h t
S oi l un d e r s c r e e n
S e n s or h e i gh t
A r t i f i c i a l v e n t i l a t i on ?
R a d i a t i onh or i z on
P r e c i pi t a t i on :
Wi n d :
R em ar k s :
T em p er a t ur e an d h umi d i t y :
E l e v a t i on
E n c l o s ur e
B ui l d i n g
R o a d
T r e e s , b u s h e s
H e i gh t ( m )
of o b s t a c l e
E l e v a t i on
c on t o ur
U p d a t e
L a t i t u d
e
L on gi t u d e
y e s / n o
y e s / n o
F r e e - s t a n d i n g ?
( i f “ n o” a b ov e : b ui l d i n gh e i gh t
T e r r a i nr o u gh n e s s c l a s s : t oN
, t oE
, t o S ,
t oW
.
,wi d t h
,l e n g t h
. 8 ° 4 ° 0 °
G en er al t em pl a t ef o
r s t a t i on e x p o s ur em e t a d a t a
P A R T I .ME A S U R E ME
I .1 – 3 2
ANNEX 1.D
OPERATIONAL MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY REQUIREMENTS AND INSTRUMENT PERFORMANCE(See explanatory notes at the end of the table; numbers in the top row indicate column numbers.)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Variable Range Reportedresolution
Mode ofmeasurement/
observation
Requiredmeasurement
uncertainty
Sensor timeconstant
Outputaveraging time
Achievablemeasurementuncertainty
Remarks
1. Temperature
1.1 Air temperature –80 – +60°C 0.1 K I 0.3 K for –40ºC0.1 K for > –40ºC
and +40ºC0 3 K for > +40ºC
20 s 1 min 0.2 K Achievable uncertainty andeffective time-constant maybe affected by the designof the thermometer solar
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C H A P T
E R 1 . GE NE R A L
I .1 – 3 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Variable Range Reportedresolution
Mode ofmeasurement/
observation
Requiredmeasurement
uncertainty
Sensor timeconstant
Outputaveraging time
Achievablemeasurementuncertainty
Remarks
Wet-bulb temperature (psychrometer)
2.2 Re lative humidity 0 – 100% 1% I 1% 20 s 1 min 0.2 K If measured directly and incombination with airtemperature (dry bulb)Large errors are possible dueto aspiration and cleanlinessproblems (see also note 11)Threshold of 0°C to benoticed for wet bulb
Solid state and others
40 s 1 min 3% Time constant andachievable uncertainty ofsolid-state sensors may show
significant temperature andhumidity dependence
3. Atmosphericpressure
3.1 Pressure 500 – 1 080 hPa 0.1 hPa I 0.1 hPa 2 s 1 min 0.15 hPa Both station pressure andMSL pressureMeasurement uncertainty isseriously affected by dynamicpressure due to wind if noprecautions are takenInadequate temperaturecompensation of thetransducer may affect themeasurement uncertaintysignificantlyMSL pressure is affected bythe uncertainty in altitudeof the barometer formeasurements onboard ships
3.2 Tendency Not specified 0.1 hPa I 0.2 hPa 0.2 hPa Difference betweeninstantaneous values
P A R T I .ME A S U R E ME
I .1 – 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Variable Range Reportedresolution
Mode ofmeasurement/
observation
Requiredmeasurement
uncertainty
Sensor timeconstant
Outputaveraging time
Achievablemeasurementuncertainty
Remarks
4. Clouds
4.1 Cloud amount 0/8 – 8/8 1/8 I 1/8 n/a 2/8 Period clustering algorithms
may be used to estimate lowcloud amount automatically
4.2 Height of cloud
base
0 m – 30 km 10 m I 10 m for 100 m10% for > 100 m
n/a ~10 m Achievable measurementuncertainty can bedetermined with a hardtarget. No clear definitionexists for instrumentallymeasured cloud-base height(e.g. based on penetrationdepth or significantdiscontinuity in the extinction
fil )
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C H A P T
E R 1 . GE NE R A L
I .1 – 3 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Variable Range Reportedresolution
Mode ofmeasurement/
observation
Requiredmeasurement
uncertainty
Sensor timeconstant
Outputaveraging time
Achievablemeasurementuncertainty
Remarks
5.3 Gusts 0.1 – 150 m s–1 0.1 m s–1 A 10% 3 s 0.5 m s–1 for 5 m s–1
10% for> 5 m s–1
Highest 3 s average shouldbe recorded
6. Precipitation
6.1 Amount (daily) 0 – 500 mm 0.1 mm T 0.1 mm for 5 mm2% for > 5 mm
n/a n/a The largerof 5% or0.1 mm
Quantity based on dailyamountsMeasurement uncertaintydepends on aerodynamiccollection efficiency ofgauges and evaporationlosses in heated gauges
6.2 Depth of snow 0 – 25 m 1 cm I 1 cm for 20 cm5% for > 20 cm
< 10 s 1 min 1 cm Average depth over anarea representative of the
observing site
6.3 Thickness of ice
accretion on
ships
Not specified 1 cm I 1 cm for 10 cm10% for > 10 cm
6.4 Precipitation
intensity
0.02 mm h–1 –2 000 mm h–1
0.1 mm h–1 I (trace): n/a for0.02 – 0.2 mm h–1
0.1 mm h–1 for 0.2 – 2 mm h–1
5% for > 2 mm h–1
< 30 s 1 min Underconstant flowconditions inlaboratory,5% above 2mm/h,2% above10 mm/hIn field,
5 mm/h and5% above100 mm/h
Uncertainty values for liquidprecipitation onlyUncertainty is seriouslyaffected by windSensors may show significantnon-linear behaviour For < 0.2 mm h–1:detection only (yes/no)sensor time constant is
significantly affected duringsolid precipitation usingcatchment type of gauges
6.5 Precipitation
duration (daily)
0 – 24 h 60 s T n/a 60 s Threshold value of0.02 mm/h
P A R T I .ME A S U R E ME
I .1 – 3 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Variable Range Reportedresolution
Mode ofmeasurement/
observation
Requiredmeasurement
uncertainty
Sensor timeconstant
Outputaveraging time
Achievablemeasurementuncertainty
Remarks
7. Radiation
7.1 Sunshine
duration (daily)
0 – 24 h 60 s T 0.1 h 20 s n/a The larger of0.1 h or 2%
7.2 Net radiation,
radiant exposure
(daily)
Not specified 1 J m–2 T 0.4 MJ m–2
for 8 MJ m–2
5% for > 8 MJ m–2
20 s n/a 0.4 MJ m–2
for 8 MJ m–2
5% for> 8 MJ m–2
Radiant exposure expressedas daily sums (amount) of(net) radiation
8. Visibility
8.1 Meteorologicaloptical range(MOR)
10 m – 100 km 1 m I 50 m for 600 m10% for > 600 m –
1 500 m20% for > 1500 m
< 30 s 1 and 10 min The larger of20 m or 20%
Achievable measurementuncertainty may depend onthe cause of obscuration
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CHAPTER 1. GENERAL I.1–39
World Meteorological Organization, 2010b: Guide
to the Global Observing System. WMO-No. 488,
Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2010c : Manual
on the Global Data-processing and Forecasting
System. Volume I – Global Aspects,Appendix II-2, WMO-No. 485, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2010d : Manual
on the Global Observing System. Volume I –
Global Aspects, WMO-No. 544, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2010e: Weather
Reporting. Volume A – Observing stations,
WMO-No. 9, Geneva.
Data and Monitoring Programme (WCDMP)
Series Report No. 53, WMO/TD-No. 1186,
Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2008: Guide
to Hydrological Practices. WMO-No. 168,
Geneva.World Meteorological Organization, 2009: Joint
WMO/IOC Technical Commission for
Oceanography and Marine Meteorology , WMO-
No. 1049, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2010a: Guide to
Agricultu ral Meteorological Practices . WMO-No.
134, Geneva.
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CHAPTER 2. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE I.2–21
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CHAPTER 2. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE I.2 21
Pape rs Pres ented at the WMO Tech nica lConference on Meteorological and Environmental
Instruments and Methods of Obser vation (TECO-2002), Instruments and Observing MethodsReport No. 75, WMO/TD-No. 1123, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2002c :Results of an intercomparison of wooden and
plastic thermometer screens (D.B. Hatton).
Pape rs Pres ented at the WMO Tech nica lConference on Meteorological and Environmental
Instruments and Methods of Observation (TECO-2002), Instruments and Observing MethodsReport No. 75, WMO/TD-No. 1123, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2002d :Temperature and humidity measurements
during icing conditions (M. Leroy,
B. Tammelin, R. Hyvönen, J. Rast and
M. Musa). Paper s Pre sente d at the WMOTechnical Conference on Meteorological and
Env ironme nta l Ins tr ume nts and Method s ofObservation (TECO-2002), Instruments andObserving Methods Report No. 75, WMO/
TD-No. 1123, Geneva.
Zanghi, F., 1987: Comparaison des Abris Mé téo rol ogi ques . Technical MemorandumNo. 11, Météo-France/SETIM, Trappes.
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CHAPTER 7. MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION I.7–31
ANNEX 7.A
NOMENCLATURE OF RADIOMETRIC AND PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES
(1) Radiometric quantities
Name Symbol Unit Relation Remarks
PART I. MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLESI.7–32
(3) Optical characteristics
Characteristic Symbol Definition Remarks
Emissivity ε ε
ε
=
=
M
M 1
= 1 for a black body
Absorptance α =
Φ
Φ
a
ia and i are the absorbed and incident
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Radiant energy Q, (W ) J=W s – –
Radiant flux , (P ) W Φ =dQ
dt Power
Radiant flux density (M ), (E ) W m–2 d
dA
d Q
dA dt
Φ=
⋅
2 Radiant flux of any origin crossing anarea element
Radiant exitance M W m–2 M d
dA=
Φ Radiant flux of any origin emerging from an area element
Irradiance E W m–2 E d
dA=
Φ Radiant flux of any origin incidentonto an area element
Radiance L W m–2 sr –1 L d
d dA=
⋅ ⋅
2Φ
cosθ Ω
The radiance is a conservativequantity in an optical system
Radiant exposure H J m–2 H dQ
dAE dt
t
t
= =
1
2
∫ May be used for daily sums of globalradiation, etc.
Radiant intensity I W sr –1 I d
d =
Φ May be used only for radiationoutgoing from “point sources”
(2) Photometric quantities
Name Symbol Unit
Quantity of light Qv lm·s
Luminous flux v lm
Luminous exitance M v lm m–2
Illuminance E v lm m–2
= lxLight exposure H v lm m
–2 s = lx·s
Luminous intensity I v lm sr –1 = cd
Luminance Lv lm m–2 s r –1 = cdm–2
Luminous flux density (M v ; E v ) lm m–2
Absorptance Φi a i radiant flux, respectively
Reflectance ! ρ =
Φ
Φ
r
i r is the reflected radiant flux
Transmittance τ =Φ
Φ
t
i
t is the radiant flux transmitted through alayer or a surface
Optical depth τ
δ =
−
e
In the atmosphere, is defined in thevertical. Optical thickness equals /cos ,where is the apparent zenith angle
CHAPTER 7. MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION I.7–33
ANNEX 7.B
METEOROLOGICAL RADIATION QUANTITIES, SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
Quantity Symbol Relation Definitions and remarks Units
Downward radiation a
Q
= g +l
Q = Qg + Ql
Downward radiant flux
“ radiant energy
W
J (W s)
PART I. MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLESI.7–34
Quantity Symbol Relation Definitions and remarks Units
Direct solar radiation E = 0
v cos ⋅
= atmospheric transmittance
= optical depth (vertical) W m–2
Solar constant E0Solar irradiance, normalized tomean sun-Earth distance
W m–2
a The symbols – or + could be used instead of or (e.g. + ).b Exitance is radiant flux emerging from the unit area; irradiance is radiant flux received per unit area. For flux density in general, the
symbol M or E can be used. Although not specifically recommended, the symbol F , defined as /area, may also be introduced.c In the case of inclined surfaces,
⋅
is the angle between the normal to the surface and the direction to the sun.
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M
E
L
H
gM = M g +M l
E = E g + E l
L = Lg + Ll
H = g + H l
(g = global)
(l = long wave)
gy
“ radiant exitanceb
“ irradiance
“ radiance
“ radiant exposure for a
specified time interval
W m–2
W m–2
W m–2 sr –1
J m–2 per
time interval
Upward radiation a
Q
M
E L
H
= r +l
Q = Qr + Ql
M = M r + M l
E = E r + E l L = Lr + Ll
H = H r + H l
Upward radiant flux
“ radiant energy
“ radiant exitance
“ irradiance“ radiance
“ radiant energy per unit area
for a specified time interval
W
J (W s)
W m–2
W m–2
W m–2 sr –1
J m–2 per
time interval
Global radiation E g E g =
Ecos ⋅
+ E d
Hemispherical irradiance on a
horizontal surface ( ⋅
= apparent
solar zenith angle)c
W m–2
Sky radiation:
downward diffuse
solar radiation
d
Qd
M d
E d
Ld
H d
Subscript d = diffuse As for
downward
radiation
Upward/downward
long-wave radiation
l , l
Ql , Ql
M l , M l
E l , E l
H l , H l
Subscript l = long wave. If only
atmospheric radiation is
considered, the subscript a may be
added, e.g. l,a
As for
downward
radiation
Reflected solar
radiation
r
Qr
Mr
Er
Lr
Hr
Subscript r = reflected
(the subscript s (specular) and d
(diffuse) may be used, if a distinction
is to be made between these two
components)
As fordownwardradiation
Net radiation *
Q*
M *
E *
L*
H *
* = –
Q* = Q – Q
M = M –M
E = E – E
L = L – L
H = H – H
The subscript g or l is to be
added to each of the symbols if
only short-wave or long-wave net
radiation quantities are considered
As fordownwardradiation
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CHAPTER 9. MEASUREMENT OF VISIBILITY I.9–15
World Meteorological Organization, 1990b: The Fi rs t WMO Inter compa rison of Vis ib il ity Measur ements: Fin al Repor t (D.J. Griggs,
D.W. Jones, M. Ouldridge and W.R. Sparks).Instruments and Observing Methods Report
No. 41, WMO/TD-No. 401, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1992a: International Meteorological Vocabulary . WMO-No. 182, Geneva.
W ld M t l i l O i ti 1992b Vi ibilit
International Electrotechnical Commission, 1987:
In te rnat ional El ect ro te chn ical Vocabula ry .Chapter 845: Lighting, IEC 50.
Middleton, W.E.K., 1952: Vision Through the Atmosphere. University of Toronto Press,Toronto.
Sheppard, B.E., 1983: Adaptation to MOR. Preprintsof the Fifth Symposium on MeteorologicalObservations and Instrumentation (Toronto,11 15 A il 1983) 226 269
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
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World Meteorological Organization, 1992b: Visibilitymeasuring instruments: Differences between scat-
terometers and transmissometers (J.P. van der
Meulen). Papers Presented at the WMO TechnicalConference on Instruments and Methods of Observation(TECO-92) (Vienna, Austria, 11–15 May 1992),Instruments and Observing Methods Report
No. 49, WMO/TD-No. 462, Geneva.World Meteorological Organization, 2003: Manual
on the Global Observing System. WMO-No. 544,Geneva.
11–15 April 1983), pp. 226–269.
Klett, J.D., 1985:
Lidar inversion with variable
backscatter/extinction ratios. Applied Optics, 24,pp. 1638–1643.
World Meteorological Organization, 1989: Guide onthe Global Observing System. WMO-No. 488,Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1990a: Guideon Meteorological Observation and Information
Dist ribu tion Sys tems at Aerodrom es. WMO-No. 731, Geneva.
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CHAPTER 11. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE I.11–11
content: Measurement in coaxial transmission
lines. Water Resources Research, 16, pp. 574-582.Van de Griend, A.A., P.J. Camillo and R.J. Gurney,
1985: Discrimination of soil physical parame-
ters, thermal inertia and soil moisture from
diurnal surface temperature fluctuations. Water Resources Research, 21, pp. 997–1009.
Visvalingam, M. and J.D. Tandy, 1972: The neutron
method for measuring soil moisture content: A
review. European Journal of Soil Science, 23,pp. 499–511.
Wellings, S.R., J.P. Bell and R.J. Raynor, 1985: TheUse of Gypsum Resistance Blocks for Measuring SoilWater Potential in the Field. Report No. 92,
Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, United
Kingdom.
World Meteorological Organization, 1968:
Practi cal Soil Moisture Problems in Agricu lture . Technical Note No. 97, WMO-No. 235.TP.128,
Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1989: Land Management in Arid and Semi-a rid Areas. Technical Note No. 186, WMO-No. 662,
Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2001: LectureNotes for Training Agricultural MeteorologicalPersonnel (J. Wieringa and J. Lomas). Second
edition, WMO-No. 551, Geneva.
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CHAPTER 12. MEASUREMENT OF UPPER-AIR PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY I.12–33
adequate archive of the original raw radiosonde
observations, if required by national practice.
Errors from infrared heat exchange pose a partic-
ular problem for correction, since these errors are
not independent of atmospheric temperature.
Solar heating errors for metallic (for example,
aluminized) sensors and white-painted sensors
are similar (see Table 12.7). Thus, it is preferable
to eliminate as soon as possible the use of whitepaint with high emissivity in the infrared as a
sensor coating, rather than to develop very
complex correction schemes for infrared heat
exchange errors.
Similarly, it is unwise to attempt to correct abnor-
mally high solar radiation heating errors using
software, rather than to eliminate the additional
sources of heating by positioning the sensor
correctly with respect to its supports, connecting
leads and radiosonde body.
Considering the importance of the ways in which
corrections are applied, the Commission for Instru-
ments and Methods of Observation6 urges Members to:
(a) To correct and make available the corrected
upper air data from the various Global Observ-
ing System upper-air stations;
(b) To make users of the data aware of changes inthe methodology used to correct reports, so
that they may be adjusted, if desired;
(c) To archive both the corrected and uncorrected
upper-air observations and produce records
for climatological applications of the correc-
tion applied. The method used should be
determined nationally;
(d) To inform WMO of the method of correction
applied.
PART I. MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLESI.12–34
ANNEX 12.A
ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS (STANDARD ERROR) FOR UPPER-AIRMEASUREMENTS FOR SYNOPTIC METEOROLOGY, INTERPRETED FOR
CONVENTIONAL UPPER-AIR AND WIND MEASUREMENTS
Variable Range Accuracy requirement
Pressure From surface to 100 hPa100 to 10 hPa
1 hPa to 2 hPa near 100 hPa2 per cent
Temperature From surface to 100 hPa100 to 10 hPa
0.5 K1 K
Relative humidity Troposphere 5 per cent (RH)
Wind direction From surface to 100 hPa 5˚, for less than 15 m s–1 2 5˚ at higher speeds
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6 As recommended by the Commission for Instruments and
Methods of Observation at its eleventh session, held in 1994,
through Recommendation 8 (CIMO-XI).
2.5 at higher speeds
From 100 to 10 hPa 5˚
Wind speed From surface to 100 hPa 1 m s–1
From 100 to 10 hPa 2 m s–1
Geopotential height ofsignificant level
From surface to 100 hPa 1 per cent near the sur face decreasing to 0.5per cent at 100 hPa
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CHAPTER 14. OBSERVATION OF PRESENT AND PAST WEATHER; STATE OF THE GROUND I.14–11
stations (M. Mezösi, A. Simon, P. Hanák and
O. Szenn.). Papers Presented at the Thi rd WMO
Technical Conference on Instruments and Methods
of Observation (TECIMO-III) (Ottawa,
8–12 July 1985), Instruments and Observing
Methods Report No. 22, WMO/TD-No. 50,
Geneva, pp. 255–259.
World Meteorological Organization, 1992:
In te rn at io na l Me te or ol og ic al Vocab ul ar y ,
WMO-No. 182, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1998: WMO Inte rcompari son of Pres ent Weather Sensors/
Systems: Final Report (Canada and France, 1993–
1995) (M. Leroy, C. Bellevaux and J.P. Jacob).
Instruments and Observing Methods Report
No. 73, WMO/TD-No. 887, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2006: WMO
Laboratory Intercompar ison of Rainfall Intensity
Gauges (France, Italy, The Netherlands, 2004–
2005) (L. Lanza, M. Leroy, C. Alexandropoulos,
L. Stagi and W. Wauben). Instruments and
Observing Methods Report No. 84, WMO/
TD-No. 1304, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2009: WMO
Field Intercomparison of Rainfall Intensity Gauges
(Italy, 2007–2009) (E. Veurich, C. Monesi,
L.G. Lanza, L. Stagi and E. Lanzinger).Instruments and Observing Methods Report
No. 99, WMO/TD-No. 1504, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2010: Manual
on Codes. Volumes I.1 and I.2, WMO-No. 306,
Geneva.
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CHAPTER 16. MEASUREMENT OF OZONE I.16–25
19 November–12 December 1999; Part III: Pretoria,South Africa, 18 March-10 April 2000 (R. D.Evans). Global Atmosphere Watch Report
No. 138, WMO/TD-No. 1016, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2001b:WMO/CEOS Report on a Strategy for IntegratingSatellite and Ground-based Observations ofOzone. Global Atmosphere Watch ReportNo. 140, WMO/TD-No. 1046, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2002: WMOGAW International Comparisons of DobsonSpectrophotometers at the MeteorologicalObservatory Hohenpeissenberg, Germany:21 May–10 June 2000 and 23 July–5 August 2000;10–23 June 2001 and 8–21 July 2001 (U. Köhler).Global Atmosphere Watch Report No. 145,
WMO/TD-No. 1114, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2003:
Comparison of Total Ozone Measurements of Dobs on and Brewer Spectrophotometer s and
Recommended Transfer Functions (J. Staehelin, J.Kerr, R. Evans and K. Vanicek). Global
Atmosphere Watch Report No. 149, WMO/
TD-No. 1147, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2004a: JOSIE-1998: Performance of ECC Ozone Sondes ofSPC-6A and ENSCI-Z Type (H.G.J. Smit andW. Straeter). Global Atmosphere Watch Report
No. 157, WMO/TD-No. 1218, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2004b: TheChanging Atmosphere: An Integrated Global
Atmospheric Chemistry Observation Theme for the IGOS Partnersh ip. Global Atmosphere WatchReport No. 159, WMO/TD-No. 1235, Geneva.
Zommerfelds, W.C. K.F. Kunzi, M.E. Summers,
R.M. Bevilacqua and D.F. Strobel, 1989:
Diurnal variations of mesospheric ozone
obtained by ground-based microwave radi-
ometry. Journal of Geophysical Research, 94,pp. 12819–12832.
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PART II
OBSERVING SYSTEMS
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CHAPTER 8. SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS II.8–33
collected from any point on Earth via the onesatellite.
The transmissions from DCSs are received by the
satellite at some point in its overpass. The means of
transferring the received data to the user has to be
different from that adopted for METEOSAT. They
follow two routes.
In the first route, the received data are immediately
retransmitted, in real time, in the ultra high
frequency range, and can be received by a user’s
receiver on an omnidirectional antenna. To ensure
communication, both receiver and outstation mustbe within a range of not more than about 2 000 km
of each other, since both must be able to see the
satellite at the same time.
In the second route, the received data are recorded
on a magnetic tape logger on board the spacecraft
and retransmitted to ground stations as the satellite
passes over. These stations are located in the UnitedStates and France (Argos system). From here, the
data are put onto the GTS or sent as a printout by
post if there is less urgency.
The cost of using the polar satellites is not small,
and, while they have some unique advantages over
geostationary systems, they are of less general
purpose use as telemetry satellites. Their greatest
value is that they can collect data from high lati-
tudes, beyond the reach of geostationary satellites.
They can also be of value in those areas of the
world not currently covered by geostationary satel-lites. For example, the Japanese GMS satellite does
not currently provide a retransmission facility, and
users can receive data only via the GTS. Until such
a time as all of the Earth’s surface is covered by
geostationary satellites with retransmission facili-
ties, polar orbiting satellites will usefully fill the
gap.
PART II. OBSERVING SYSTEMSII.8–34
ANNEX 8.A
ADVANCED VERY HIGH RESOLUTION RADIOMETER CHANNELSNadir resolution 1.1 km: swath width > 2 600 km
Channel Wavelengthµm
Primary uses
1 0.58–0.68 Daytime cloud surface mapping
2 0.725–1.10 Surface water, ice, snowmelt
3 3.55–3.93 Sea-surface temperature, night-time cloud mapping
4 10.30–11.30 Sea-surface temperature, day and night c loud mapping
5 11.50–12.50 Sea-surface temperature, day and night c loud mapping
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CHAPTER 9. RADAR MEASUREMENTS II.9–33
Conference on Radar Meteorology (Vail, Colorado),
American Meteorological Society, Boston,pp. 725–728.
Zrnic, D.S. and S. Hamidi, 1981: Considerations forthe Design of Ground Clutter Cancelers for Weather
Radar . Report DOT/FAA/RD-81/72, NTIS,pp. 77.
Zrnic, D.S. and A.V. Ryzhkov, 1995: Advantages ofrain measurements using specific differentialphase. Preprints of the Twenty-seventh Conferenceon Radar Meteorology (Vail, Colorado), AmericanMeteorological Society, pp. 35–37.
boundary-layer convergence lines. Monthly
Weather Review , Volume 114, pp. 2516–2536.Wood, V.T. and R.A. Brown, 1986: Single Doppler
velocity signature interpretation of nondiver-gent environmental winds. Journal of Atmosphericand Oceanic Technology , Volume 3, pp. 114–128.
World Meteorological Organization, 1985: Use of Radar in Meteorology (G.A. Clift). Technical NoteNo. 181, WMO-No. 625, Geneva.
Wurman, J., M. Randall and C. Burghart, 1995:Real-time vector winds from a bistatic Dopplerradar network. Preprints of the Twenty -seventh
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CHAPTER 12. ROAD METEOROLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS II.12–9
12.11 TRAINING
To manage, operate and maintain a network of
road meteorological stations in order to obtain a
continuous flow of reliable data and to interpret
that data to give fully meaningful information
requires personnel with specific training in the
necessary disciplines. Some of these areas of
expertise are: the roadway environment and
operational decision-making for the safe and
efficient movement of traffic; remote data
acquisition, telecommunications and computing;
the selection, application and maintenance of
meteorological sensors and their signal processing;
and the interpretation of meteorological and
other data for the operational context. The
administration responsible for the road network
should collaborate with other agencies as
necessary in order to ensure that the optimum
mix of knowledge and training is maintained to
ensure the successful operation of the road
meteorological measurement network.
PART II. OBSERVING SYSTEMSII.12–10
World Road Association (PIARC), 2002: Proceedingsof the Eleventh PIARC International Winter RoadCongress (Sapporo, Japan).
World Meteorological Organization, 1988: Technical Regulations. WMO-No. 49, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1995: Manualon Codes. Volumes I.1 and I.2. WMO-No. 306,Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1997: Road Meteorological Observations (R.E.W. Pettifer and
J. Terpstra). Instruments and Observing Methods
Report No. 61, WMO/TD-No. 842, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2003a: Road Managers and Meteorologists over Road MeteorologicalObservations: The Result of Questionnaires (J.M. Terpstraand T. Ledent). Instruments and Observing Methods
Report No. 77, WMO/TD-No. 1159, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2003b: Manual onthe Global Observing System. WMO-No. 544,Geneva.
II.12–10
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
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PART III
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND MANAGEMENT
OF OBSERVING SYSTEMS
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CHAPTER 5. TRAINING OF INSTRUMENT SPECIALISTS III.5–17
Craig, R.L. (ed.), 1987: Training and Development
Han dbook: A Gui de to Hum an Re sou rce
Development. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Imai, M., 1986: Kaizen: The Key to Japan’s Competitive
Success. Random House, New York.
International Organization for Standardization,
1994a: Quality Management and Quality
Assurance Standards – Part 1: Guidel ines for
Selection and Use. ISO 9000–1; 1994, Geneva.
International Organization for Standardization,
1994b: Quality Management and Quality System
Elements – Part 1: Guidelines. ISO 9004-1; 1994,Geneva
Moss, G., 1987: The Trainer’s Handbook. Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries, New Zealand.
Walton, M., 1986: The Deming Management Method .
Putnam Publishing, New York.
World Meteorological Organization, 1983: Catalogue
of Meteorological Training Publications and
Audiovisual Aids. Third edition, Education and
Training Programme Report No. 4, WMO/
TD-No. 124, Geneva.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
World Meteorological Organization, 1986:
Compendium of Lecture Notes on Meteorological
Instruments for Training Class II I and Class IV
Meteorol ogical Personne l (D.A. Simidchiev).
WMO-No. 622, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1990: Guidance
for the Education and Training of Instrument
Specialists (R.A. Pannett). Education and
Training Programme Report No. 8, WMO/
TD-No. 413, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2002a:
Guidelines for the Education and Training of Per son nel in Met eor olo gy and Ope rat ional
Hydro logy . Volume I: Meteorology. Fourth
edition, WMO-No. 258, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2002b: Initial
Formation and Specialisat ion of Meteoro logical
Personne l: Detailed Syllabus Examples. WMO/
TD-No. 1101, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2010: Guide to
the Global Observing System. WMO-No. 488,
Geneva.
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APPENDIX
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THE GUIDE
Artz, R. (United States)
Ball, G. (Australia)
Behrens, K. (Germany)
Bonnin, G.M. (United States)
Bower, C.A. (United States)
Canterford, R. (Australia)
Childs, B. (United States)
Claude, H. (Germany)
Crum, T. (United States)
Dombrowsky, R. (United States)
Edwards, M. (South Africa)
Evans, R.D. (United States)
Feister, E. (Germany)
Forgan, B.W. (Australia)
Hilger, D. (United States)
Holleman, I. (Netherlands)
Hoogendijk, K. (Netherlands)
Johnson, M. (United States)
Klapheck, K.-H. (Germany)
Klausen, J. (Switzerland)
Koehler, U. (Germany)
Ledent, T. (Belgium)
Luke, R. (United States)
Nash, J. (United Kingdom)
Oke, T. (Canada)
Painting, D.J. (United Kingdom)
Pannett, R.A. (New Zealand)
Qiu Qixian (China)
Rudel, E. (Austria)
Saffle, R. (United States)
Schmidlin, F.J. (United States)
Sevruk, B. (Switzerland)
Srivastava, S.K. (India)
Steinbrecht, W. (Germany)
Stickland, J. (Australia)
Stringer, R. (Australia)
Sturgeon, M.C. (United States)
Thomas, R.D. (United States)
Van der Meulen, J.P. (Netherlands)
Vanicek, K. (Czech Republic)
Wieringa, J. (Netherlands)
Winkler, P. (Germany)
Zahumensky, I. (Slovakia)
Zhou Weixin (China)
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P - O B S_
1 1 1 3 5 0
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www.wmo.int
Recommended