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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides Prepared by Patty Bostwick-Taylor,Florence-Darlington Technical College
C H A P T E R1
The Human Body: An Orientation
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Human Body—An Orientation
Anatomy
•Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts
Physiology
•Study of how the body and its parts work or function
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anatomy—Levels of Study
•Gross anatomy
•Large structures
•Easily observable
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.1
Mouth (oral cavity)Tongue
Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
Small intestineDuodenumJejunumlleum
Anus
Parotid gland
Salivary glandsSublingual glandSubmandibulargland
Pharynx
StomachPancreas(Spleen)
Large intestine
Descendingcolon
CecumSigmoid colonRectumAppendixAnal canal
Transversecolon
Ascendingcolon
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anatomy—Levels of Study
•Microscopic anatomy
•Structures cannot be seen with the naked eye
•Structures can only be viewed with a microscope
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.4c
Pyloricsphincter
Gastric pits
Surfaceepithelium
Mucousneck cells
Parietal cells
Gastricglands
Chief cells
Ga
str
ic p
itG
as
tric
gla
nd
(c)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.4d
Pepsinogen PepsinHCl
Parietal cells
Chief cells
Enteroendocrinecell
(d)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1
Organismal levelHuman organisms are made up of many organ systems.
Organ system levelOrgan systems consist of different organs that work together closely.
Organ levelOrgans are made up of different types of tissues.
Chemical levelAtoms combine toform molecules.
Smooth muscle cell
Cellular levelCells are made up of molecules.
Molecules
2
Atoms
1
Tissue levelTissues consist of similar types of cells.
3
Smoothmuscletissue
Epithelialtissue
Smoothmuscletissue
Connectivetissue
Bloodvessel(organ)
4
5
Cardio–vascularsystem
6
Bloodvessels
Heart
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 1
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 2
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 3
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 4
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 5
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 6
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organ System Overview
•Integumentary
•Forms the external body covering
•Protects deeper tissue from injury
•Helps regulate body temperature
•Location of cutaneous nerve receptors
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2a
Skin
(a) Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; location of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organ System Overview
•Skeletal
•Protects and supports body organs
•Provides muscle attachment for movement
•Site of blood cell formation
•Stores minerals
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2b
(b) Skeletal System
Protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement; blood cells are formed within bones; stores minerals.
Cartilages
Joint
Bones
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organ System Overview
•Muscular
•Produces movement
•Maintains posture
•Produces heat
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2c
(c) Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat.
Skeletalmuscles
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organ System Overview
•Nervous
•Fast-acting control system
•Responds to internal and external change
•Activates muscles and glands
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2d
(d) Nervous System
Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
Brain
Sensoryreceptor
Spinalcord
Nerves
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organ System Overview
•Endocrine
•Secretes regulatory hormones
•Growth
•Reproduction
•Metabolism
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2e
(e) Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells.
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)
Pancreas
Adrenal glands
Thymus gland
Thyroid gland(parathyroid glandson posterior aspect)
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organ System Overview
•Cardiovascular
•Transports materials in body via blood pumped by heart
•Oxygen
•Carbon dioxide
•Nutrients
•Wastes
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2f
(f) Cardiovascular System
Heart
Blood vessels transport blood,which carries oxygen, carbondioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.;the heart pumps blood.
Bloodvessels
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organ System Overview
•Lymphatic
•Returns fluids to blood vessels
•Cleanses the blood
•Involved in immunity
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2g
Picks up fluid leaked from bloodvessels and returns it to blood;disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells involved in immunity.
Lymph nodes
(g) Lymphatic System
Lymphatic vessels
Thoracic duct
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Organ System Overview
•Respiratory
•Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
•Removes carbon dioxide
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2h
Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Pharynx
(h) Respiratory System
Nasalcavity
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchus
Left lung
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organ System Overview
•Digestive
•Breaks down food
•Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
•Eliminates indigestible material as feces
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2i
Breaks food down into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Oral cavity
(i) Digestive System
Esophagus
Stomach
Smallintestine
Anus
Rectum
Largeintestine
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organ System Overview
•Urinary
•Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
•Maintains acid-base balance
•Regulates water and electrolytes
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2j
Eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood.
(j) Urinary System
Kidney
Ureter
Urinarybladder
Urethra
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
•Reproductive
•Produces offspring
•Testes produce sperm and male hormone
•Ovaries produce eggs and female hormones
Organ System Overview
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breast produce milk to nourish the newborn.
(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System
Prostategland
Penis
Seminalvesicles
Vasdeferens
Testis
Scrotum
Vagina
Ovary
Uterinetube
Mammaryglands(in breasts)
Uterus
Figure 1.2k–l
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions
•Maintain boundaries
•Movement
•Locomotion
•Movement of substances
•Responsiveness
•Ability to sense changes and react
•Digestion
•Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions
•Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body
•Break down complex molecules into smaller ones
•Build larger molecules from smaller ones
•Produces energy
•Regulated by hormones
•Excretion
•Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions
•Wastes may be removed in urine or feces
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions
•Reproduction
•Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
•Produces future generation
•Growth
•Increases cell size and number of cells
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Survival Needs
•Nutrients
•Chemicals for energy and cell building
•Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals
•Oxygen
•Required for chemical reactions
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Survival Needs
•Water
•60 to 80 percent of body weight
•Most abundant chemical in the human body
•Provides for metabolic reaction
•Stable body temperature
•37°C (98°F)
•Atmospheric pressure
•Must be appropriate for gas exchange
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
NutrientsHeart
Interstitial fluid
Blood
Food
Digestive systemTakes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces)
Respiratory systemTakes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide
Cardiovascular systemVia the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbondioxide to disposal organs
Urinary system Eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes and excess ions
Feces Urine
Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid
O2
CO2
Integumentary systemProtects the body as a whole from the external environment
CO2O2
Figure 1.3
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Homeostasis
•Homeostasis—maintenance of a stable internal environment
•A dynamic state of equilibrium
•Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life
•Homeostatic imbalance
•A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Receptor
ControlCenter
Effector Receptor detects change.
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
IMBALANCE
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector.
Responseof effector feedsback to reducethe effect ofstimulus andreturns variableto homeostatic level.
1
2
3 4
5
IMBALANCE
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4, step 1
IMBALANCE
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
1
IMBALANCE
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4, step 2
Receptor Receptor detects change.
IMBALANCE Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
1
IMBALANCE
2
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4, step 3
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Receptor
ControlCenter
Receptor detects change.
Afferentpathway
IMBALANCE
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
1
3
IMBALANCE
2
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4, step 4
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Receptor
ControlCenter
Effector Receptor detects change.
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
IMBALANCE
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector.
1
3 4
IMBALANCE
2
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4, step 5
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Receptor
ControlCenter
Effector Receptor detects change.
Afferentpathway
Efferentpathway
IMBALANCE
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Stimulusproduceschange invariable.
Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector.
Responseof effector feedsback to reducethe effect ofstimulus andreturns variableto homeostatic level.
1
3 4
5
IMBALANCE
2
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Maintaining Homeostasis
•The body communicates through neural and hormonal control systems
•Receptor
•Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
•Sends information to control center
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Maintaining Homeostasis
•Control center
•Determines set point
•Analyzes information
•Determines appropriate response
•Effector
•Provides a means for response to the stimulus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Feedback Mechanisms
•Negative feedback
•Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
•Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its intensity
•Works like a household thermostat
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Feedback Mechanisms
•Positive feedback
•Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther
•In the body this only occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Language of Anatomy
•Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding
•Exact terms are used for
•Position
•Direction
•Regions
•Structures
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Regional Terms
•Anterior body landmarks
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cervical
Umbilical
Pubic (genital)
PelvicInguinal(groin)
(a) Anterior/Ventral
KEY:
Deltoid
Digital
Lower limbCoxal (hip)
Patellar
Fibular
Pedal (foot)
Digital
Upper limb
Acromial
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Antebrachial
Carpal (wrist)
Manus (hand)
Crural (leg)
Tarsal (ankle)
Femoral (thigh)
CephalicFrontalOrbitalNasal
BuccalOral Mental
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
ThoracicSternalAxillary
Abdominal
(forearm)
Figure 1.5a
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Regional Terms
•Posterior body landmarks
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.5b(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Gluteal
Sacral
Lumbar
Vertebral
Back (dorsal) Scapular
Cervical
CephalicOccipital (back of head) Acromial
Brachial (arm)
Olecranal
Antebrachial
Manus (hand)Digital
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular
Pedal (foot)Calcaneal
Plantar
Upper limb
KEY:
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
(forearm)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Directional Terms
•Superior (cranial or cephalad): toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
•Inferior (caudal): away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Directional Terms
•Ventral (anterior): toward or at the front of the body; in front of
•Dorsal (posterior): toward or at the backside of the body; behind
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Directional Terms
•Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
•Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
•Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral structure
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Directional Terms
•Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk
•Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Directional Terms
•Superficial: toward or at the body surface
•Deep: away from the body surface; more internal
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Body Planes and Sections
•A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into left and right parts.
•A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ) into equal left and right parts.
•A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or organ) into anterior and posterior parts.
•A transverse, or cross, section divides the body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
(a) Median (midsagittal)
Vertebralcolumn
(b) Frontal (coronal) plane
Rightlung Heart
Leftlung
(c) Transverse plane
Liver Aorta SpleenSpinalcord
Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneousfat layer
Stomach
Figure 1.6
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Body Cavities
•Dorsal body cavity
•Cranial cavity houses the brain
•Spinal cavity houses the spinal cord
•Ventral body cavity
•Thoracic cavity houses heart, lungs, and others
•Abdominopelvic cavity houses digestive system and most urinary system organs
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cranial cavity
Spinal cavity
Thoraciccavity
Diaphragm
Abdominalcavity
Pelviccavity
Ab
do
min
op
elvi
cca
vit
y
KEY:
Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavityFigure 1.7
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Right upperquadrant(RUQ)
Right lowerquadrant(RLQ)
Left upperquadrant(LUQ)
Left lowerquadrant(LLQ)
Figure 1.8
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.9a-b
Righthypo-
chondriacregion
Epigastricregion
Rightlumbarregion
Umbilicalregion
Right iliac(inguinal)
region
Hypogastric(pubic)region
Left iliac(inguinal)
region
Leftlumbarregion
Lefthypo-
chondriacregion
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes (b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs
Liver
Gallbladder
Ascendingcolon of largeintestine
Small intestine
Cecum
Appendix
Diaphragm
Stomach
Transversecolon of largeintestine
Descendingcolon of largeintestine
Initial part ofsigmoid colon
Urinarybladder
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