Ethics

Doing Doing RightRight Things: Things:Ethics and Decision Making in Ethics and Decision Making in Human OrganizationsHuman Organizations

SHILPI PRIYA

P.G.D.M(HR)

For generations, managers and leaders have wondered not only about what they might do when confronted by particularly troublesome dilemmas in their organizations. Sensing their responsibility to make things better, these women and men have also struggled to do what they believe and hope is the rightright thing to do.

THE CHALLENGE OF ETHICS

the concept of ethicsethics...…assumes that there exist

normsprinciples

values

...that have, are, and always will provide the foundation for a good life

these norms, principles, and values do not come from a religious, moral, political, or social source...…but are the product of rational

reflection upon human existence

…and exist independent of any religious, moral, political, or social system (i.e., are universally true)

these norms, principles, and values are normative for decision making...

…while they do not specify what the decision should be

…they do provide a principled framework to engage in making good decisions

…for which managers and leaders bear responsibility

Some basic ethical principles...Some basic ethical principles...

mutualitymutuality

generalizabilitygeneralizability

caringcaring

respectrespect

honestyhonesty

mutualitymutuality:

Are all parties operating under the same understanding of the rules of engagement?

generalizabilitygeneralizability:

Does a specific action follow a principle of conduct that is applicable to all comparable situations?

caringcaring:

Does this action evidence authentic concern for the legitimate interests of others?

respectrespect:

Does this action demonstrate due consideration for the dignity and rights of others?

honestyhonesty:

Is this decision and the process leading to it straight-forward and forthright?

Although these basic principles constitute the fundamental elements embedded in an ethical decision...…these principles do not provide a

comprehensive ethical framework...…for use when managers and leaders

engage in the decision-making process.

An executive ethical decision-making An executive ethical decision-making process (Barnard,process (Barnard, 1968)...1968)...

1. Recognize that people come to organizations with personal motives.2. Direct efforts to induce cooperation towards a common effort.

3. Uphold the organizational purpose.4. Design impersonal goals that

translate the organization’s purpose into meaningful projects.

Questions for ethical decision Questions for ethical decision making (Lax & Sebenius, 1986)...making (Lax & Sebenius, 1986)...

Are the rules understood and accepted?…in poker, for example, bluffing is a

defined part of the game

Is the decision defensible under tough scrutiny in the public forum?…it is highly probable that an

important decision will be “spun” in ways that distort what managers and leaders intend

Would you want someone to make the very same decision...

…if it impacted you?

…if it impacted members of your family?

Should everybody act this way?

…should children be trained to act this way?

…should society be organized this way?

…should people in organizations behave this way?

What are the alternatives?

…what are the pro’s and con’s associated with each alternative?

…can differences be negotiated so that the decision rests on a firmer ethical ground?

Ethics is “inquiry into the Ethics is “inquiry into the rightright thing” thing” and acting conversant with it...and acting conversant with it...

When managers and leaders endeavor to inquire into the rightright thing...…“we are inquiring not in order to know

what virtue is but in order to become good”

…neither “to fall under any art or precept… but to consider what is appropriate to the occasion” (Aristotle, Ethics II.2, p. 183)

A paradigm for ethical decision making A paradigm for ethical decision making (Aristotle,(Aristotle, Ethics III.2-5)...Ethics III.2-5)...

quantitative and qualitative factual data that describe “what is truly the case”knowledge of

the good abstract, theoretical concepts identifying “the truly good”

For managers and leaders, the primary sources of knowledge are research and experience.

technical skillstechniques that foster the good repertoires honed through

experience

For managers and leaders, techniques are learned in formal and informal apprenticeships where reflection on practice facilitates the development of expertise.

In light of what the good requires:

practice deliberation concerning the

techniques that will foster the good

deliberation concerning the facts and ideas of this case

Aristotle’s ethical decision-making Aristotle’s ethical decision-making paradigm...paradigm...

ideas concerning what is good, proper, and just

techniquesdiscrete skills to achieve what is good, proper, and just

practice

a practical judgment about what must be done in this situation, given what theory and best practice suggest

knowledge

For Aristotle, ethical practice is For Aristotle, ethical practice is notnot......

dictating to others what the good is and what they ought to do

mindlessly enacting routines inculcated in training programs

For Aristotle, ethical practice is...For Aristotle, ethical practice is...

being deliberate by integrating a rational principle with a proven technique through discursive thought (ratiocination)

responding: to the right person to the right extent

at the right time in the right way

evidencing a virtuous character revealed in practical wisdom when making decisions

bearing responsibility for the choices made

and, thus...

inculcating virtue throughout the organization as a shared purpose

For Aristotle, then, it is not so much whatwhat managers or leaders do that is crucial for ethical decision making...

...what is crucial is whywhy managers or leaders do what they do

...and the quality of character revealed in very practical decisions.

“…that is not for everyone, nor is it easy; wherefore goodness is both rare and laudable and noble.”

Aristotle, Ethics, II.9

Seven ethical virtues...Seven ethical virtues...

couragecourage

liberalityliberality

magnificencemagnificence

pridepride

angeranger

truthtruth

indignationindignation

COURAGECOURAGE

…the quality of being fearless or brave when facing and dealing with anything recognized as dangerous, difficult, or painful

LIBERALITYLIBERALITY

…the noble quality whereby one is generous in thought and evidences the absence of prejudice and partiality when considering substantive matters

MAGNIFICENCEMAGNIFICENCE

…the condition or quality of grandeur, splendor, and glory uplifting the human spirit

PRIDEPRIDE

…the quality, state, and behavior evidencing an accurate perception of one’s dignity and worth

ANGERANGER

…the feeling engendered by a real or supposed injury for which one seeks satisfaction

TRUTHTRUTH

…the quality or state of sincerity, genuineness, honesty, trustworthiness, and loyalty emerging when one acts in accord with verified experience, facts, or reality

INDIGNATIONINDIGNATION

…the contempt, disgust, and abhorrence caused by the disapproval of something mean, disgraceful, or unjust

Aristotle’s theory of the Aristotle’s theory of the “Golden Mean”...“Golden Mean”...

…found somewhere between an excess (a positive vice)

…and a deficiency (a negative vice)

…which reflects the true character of the person making the decision

A virtue is a mean, delicate to achieve...

COURAGECOURAGE confidencefear

Manager/Leader Virtue:

as a vice:an excess

as a vice:a defect

as a virtue:a “golden mean”

Courage, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of paralyzing fear and the excess of exuberant confidence are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

LIBERALITYLIBERALITY prodigalitymeanness

Manager/Leader Virtue:

as a vice:an excess

as a vice:a defect

as a virtue:a “golden mean”

Liberality, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of meanness and the excess of prodigality are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

MAGNIFICENCEMAGNIFICENCE vulgarityniggardliness

Manager/Leader Virtue:

as a vice:an excess

as a vice:a defect

as a virtue:a “golden mean”

Magnificence, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of niggardliness and the excess of vulgarity are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

PRIDEPRIDE vanityhumility

Manager/Leader Virtue:

as a vice:an excess

as a vice:a defect

as a virtue:a “golden mean”

Pride, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of humility and the excess of vanity are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

ANGERANGER irascibilityequanimity

Manager/Leader Virtue:

as a vice:an excess

as a vice:a defect

as a virtue:a “golden mean”

Anger, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of equanimity and the excess of irascibility are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

TRUTHTRUTH boastingmodesty

Manager/Leader Virtue:

as a vice:an excess

as a vice:a defect

as a virtue:a “golden mean”

Truth, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of modesty and the excess of envy are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

INDIGNATIONINDIGNATION envyspite

Manager/Leader Virtue:

as a vice:an excess

as a vice:a defect

as a virtue:a “golden mean”

Indignation, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of spite and the excess of envy are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

• Enables managers and leaders......to stand for somethingsomething when people

prefer that managers and leaders stand for everythingeverything

...to do rightright things when people prefer that managers and leaders do things rightright

A virtue-based process of ethical A virtue-based process of ethical decision making...decision making...

Integrating reflective practice and Integrating reflective practice and ethical decision making...ethical decision making...

Reflective practice and ethical decision making require intellectual exercise and discipline

...ethical decision making endeavors to promote the good amidst conflicting and contradictory choices

…reflective practice focuses upon practice episodes to ascertain how one’s beliefs and assumptions as well as one’s background and experiences impact organizational functioning

The concept...The concept...

reflective practice

Reflective practice inculcates the intellectual discipline needed to discern “what is” in practice episodes as well as to engage in the self-growth necessary if one is to manage and lead others.

…the intellectual exercise through which managers and leaders focus upon events in order to ascertain how one’s beliefs and assumptions as well as one’s background and experiences impact organizational functioning

Reflective practice...Reflective practice...

is constructed on the reality that professionalprofessional knowledge is different from scientificscientific knowledge

Reflective practice requires managers and leaders to confront ill-defined, unique, and changing problems as managers and leaders decide on courses of action.

accounts for the fact that there are no infallibly efficacious theories or skills to manage and lead human organizations

antecedents theories of practice practice episodes

cultural milieu

theoretical knowledge

craft knowledge

self knowledge

critical knowledge

mindscapes

action platforms

intentions

actions

realities

The reflective practice model...The reflective practice model...

ethical decision making

Ethical decision making inculcates the virtues needed for managers and leaders to engage others in a collaborative toward attaining what ought to be the case.

…the intellectual exercise through which managers and leaders render practical judgments of the intellect about what ought to be the case, given what is, so as to promote the good

Aristotle’s ethical decision-making Aristotle’s ethical decision-making paradigm...paradigm...

ideas concerning what is good, proper, and just

techniquesdiscrete skills to achieve what is good, proper, and just

practice

a practical judgment about what must be done in this situation, given what theory and best practice suggest

knowledge

Reframing ethical decision Reframing ethical decision making...making...

Reframing ethical decision making requires intellectual exercise and discipline

Ethical decision making navigates a pathway toward the good amidst the conflicting and contradictory choices available

Reframing uses metaphors to focus upon organizations in order to ascertain how various beliefs and assumptions as well as backgrounds and experiences impact organizational functioning

Frame: Metaphor: Guiding Ethic: Management/Leadership:

Structural Factory Excellence(individualistic)

Authorship• Creativity• Commitment• Craftsmanship

Reframing ethical decision making from a structural point of view...

Frame: Metaphor: GuidingEthic:

Management/Leadership:

HumanResources

The extendedfamily

Caring(community)

Love• Cooperation

(Barnard)• Compliance

(Etzioni)

Reframing ethical decision making from a human resources point of view...

Frame: Metaphor: GuidingEthic:

Management/Leadership:

Political Jungle Justice(individual and

collective)

Power• Empowerment

Reframing ethical decision making from a political point of view...

Frame: Metaphor: GuidingEthic:

Management/Leadership:

Symbolic CathedralTemple

Faith Significance• Human

possibilities• Purpose

(Barnard; Vaill)

Reframing ethical decision making from a symbolic/cultural point of view...

effective managers and leaders are

…virtuous

Using ethical decision making...Using ethical decision making...

whose primary concerns are

…“what ought to be” given “what is”

…balancing the common and collective good

…wise…decisive

…reflective

…doing rightright things

ineffective managers and leaders

…implement ideas mindlessly

Abusing ethical decision Abusing ethical decision making...making...

whose primary concerns are

…doing things right…self-protection

…deny responsibility…point the finger of

blame at others

…one’s desires and wishes

…is not a learned behavior or lifestyle worn like a set of clothes, but...

Ethical decision making...Ethical decision making...

● a matter of focusfocus: seeking constantly to do what is right and necessary in the system

● a matter of timetime: devoting inordinate amounts of time to doing right things

● a matter of feelingfeeling: putting one’s whole psyche, energy, and conviction into it

This module has focused on...This module has focused on...

ethical decision makingethical decision making and how managers and leaders can utilize it in practice episodes...

“By acting virtuously in our transactions with other human beings we become virtuous or unvirtuous. The states of character arise out of activity. It makes no small difference, then, whether we form habits of one kind or another from our very youth; it makes a great difference, or rather, all the difference.”

Aristotle, Ethics, II.1, p. 183

ETHICAL DECISION MAKING

Although existing in a pluralistic and secular world, organizations cannot impose a particular religious, moral, political, or social ethical framework upon employees...

…managers and leaders, however, can and should make their purpose clear, hold subordinates accountable, and engage them in dialogue about the ethical choices that arise in practice.

The outcome of ethical practice is the gradual transformation of an impersonal workplace into a viable community of people...

Work, then, is not simply “a job” but an opportunity to learn about and engage in living a truly good life.

...who respect and recognize in one another the virtues that make being human and contributing to a cooperative endeavor meaningful.